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MIS Laboratory – Resources for Tech Faculty and Students MIS Laboratory – Resources for dr kujawski of michigan Tech Faculty and Students. Software, curriculum, career, contest, and news resources. Hosted by Randy Guthrie, PhD – Microsoft Technical Evangelist. How to Get a Job At Microsoft Part II: Writing an Awesome Resume. by Randy Guthrie Microsoft Academic Developer Evangelist. Over the valdosta education, past few months I visited nine college campuses, attended three conferences and dr kujawski university of michigan, conducted a hand-full of job interviews, and in the process I’ve seen scores of siniawski loyola resumes.

One thing I’ve been impressed with is how awful most of them are. I realize that I am probably jaded by of michigan my experience as a career coach and service at university of maryland university college a community career center, but still I find it amazing that something that is dr kujawski university, so critical for getting a job is so poorly understood; particularly by those who need jobs the most ie: students seeking internships and new college graduates. The good news is that if you do even a moderately good job of village writing your resume you have a pretty good chance of standing out from your competitors. I’ve put off writing this post because it is a daunting task trying to write general guidance that will be useful to most readers, and I’ve struggled how to do this briefly, but I’ve given up and apologize in advance for the length of dr kujawski university of michigan this post and hope most will find something useful in the next few thousand or so words. Pictures Of Marshall University Plane Crash Victims. Let me state that I recognize that there are many ways to dr kujawski write a great resume, and this is university of maryland university college, just one of university of michigan those ways, but since this way has always worked so far for the folks I’ve helped, that’s what I’m sticking with. I also recognize that a resume is very personal, and you need to be comfortable with how it looks, so deviation from of maryland university college this guidance is fine (and necessary) since everyone is different and some situations will need to university be handled differently than shown below. Stanford Emergency Residency. If you have questions about a specific type of situation ASK IN A COMMENT TO THIS POST and I promise I will answer in an additional comment or even a follow-up post. Your questions will make this post even more valuable to everyone that reads it.

First, some useful links: Resume Workshop Video : This is an animated PowerPoint presentation with my audio commentary that covers the content of this post and more Interviewing Workshop Video: This is an dr kujawski of michigan animated PowerPoint presentation with audio commentary on how to prepare for a behavioral interview MIS Laboratory Student Page: lots of useful career links. Now let’s dig in. GENERAL FORMATTING PAGE LENGTH. One Page Please! Most managers will only look at your resume for west village housing towson 15-20 seconds before deciding whether to dr kujawski university of michigan keep reading or put your resume in housing university, what I call “The Big Pile”. If you haven’t hooked the reader by then, you’ve lost the first round to someone who can tell their story succinctly. Two or three-page resumes do not increase your chances that the reader will find something interesting, it actually makes it less likely they will find (by scanning) something that they care about.

So try to keep it to a page. I’ve never seen someone other than a college professor who needed more than one page to land an dr kujawski interview. White Paper Standard Fonts Unless you are a graphic artist, using colored paper, odd shapes fancy type fonts are not going to make the in hong, kind of impression that gets an interview. University Of Michigan. Superficial attempts to differentiate yourself can backfire, because the reader may assume you are childish, unprofessional, or don’t have any meaningful content. Of Marshall Crash Victims. Use the same type face throughout, but you can use different sizes and dr kujawski of michigan, italics to make it easier to university scan. Don’t go smaller than 11 pt font or larger than13 pt font for the main text. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. The examples that follow will show when larger and west village towson university, smaller fonts are appropriate. There are two approaches that I like to use. The first is useful if you don’t have a lot of relevant experience and you are trying to fill space.

While one of the examples show the hyperlink in dr kujawski, blue, do not use colored ink when printing a paper copy of your resume. Towson University. Of course if you provide an dr kujawski electronic copy of siniawski university your resume, live hyperlinks can be useful and save the reader time if not used excessively. Your name and contact information should be grouped together. I personally don’t like having a person’s name on the left and dr kujawski of michigan, the contact information on the right. Valdosta State University Education. In the example my name is 28pt and contact info is dr kujawski university of michigan, 11pt. You can go as low as nine point, but if space is an option use the two line format on the right. Two additional pieces of advice: (1) use only west housing towson university, one phone number, and make sure it is dr kujawski of michigan, one where you can get a message (change the recorded greeting if necessary so as to project a professional image) and (2) avoid cryptic or childish e-mail addresses, and use only university, one of university those as well. Some career advisors will tell you not to yeshiva university put a career or employment objective statement. My advice is to use one. My reason is simple: I debriefed a recruiter from a major aerospace company after a job fair and university of michigan, he told me that he put any resume he received without a [clear] objective statement in the trash, because his HR department would not know where to route it. So my advice is to use one and make it count.

Here’s how: Your objective statement should say in under ten words the kind of university college job you are looking for. For example: “Seeking a senior-level account executive position in of michigan, the Pharmaceutical industry”. Do not use airy, empty, and vague statements that don’t say anything such as “seeking a challenging position with a leading company where my skills and strengths can be utilized”. You would be amazed at how many people think that is siniawski, what you are supposed to write. I saw a resume written just this week that had an objective statement that said “To play a significant role in an organization that aspires to be extraordinary”. These kinds of statements don’t help and can actually delay the dr kujawski, reader from siniawski loyola learning anything of value about you.

But What If I’m Qualified for More Than One Kind of Job? If you are going to dr kujawski university of michigan a career fair, then you should probably take several (three or four or even five) versions of your resume. Most job fairs will list the yeshiva university positions, companies and the jobs they are recruiting for in advance so if you are prepared, then you can know how many versions you should take. For example, you can have different resumes that focus on university web development, database, or application development, information security, or telecommunications. If you are applying to a specific company, then you tailor the objective statement (actually the entire resume) for that specific job. If you are applying for yeshiva positions in hong an internship or job right out of college, your education is university, your biggest selling point, so it needs to go before any previous work experience.

Since most recruiters will know what school they are recruiting from, and name of the school is less important and the college major / minor and date of completion. Once you’ve graduated and are on the street, then where you went to school is more important than the major. Here is how I would handle both situations: In these examples, I put the degree major first, because that is the housing towson university, first thing a recruiter will care about. I also put my my recent (and most impressive!) degree first. Notice I don’t put GPA. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. There are two reasons: 1) it clutters up the page with less-important information, and 2) unless you graduated with a 4.0, most people won’t think there is much difference between a 3.5 and yeshiva positions in hong, a 3.8.

If your GPA is dr kujawski of michigan, less than a 3.6, it probably doesn’t differentiate you from others, so leave it off unless an employer requires it. If your GPA is university park, under 3.0, then I don’t have to explain why you would leave it off. If you graduated with honors, and it says so on your transcript, then by all means mention it as in the first example. If you college doesn’t award honors, do not make it up, even if your 3.9 GPA would have gotten you honors at a college that awards them. If you need to put a GPA in, then I would put it just to the right of the dr kujawski, university name.

What should I put if I have not graduated yet? This is one of my favorite resume techniques. The minute you start attending school you can put that you are working on a degree, and post your anticipated graduation date. The cool part is that you format it just like these examples, but word the of marshall university plane, graduation date a little differently like the “PhD degree” in university of michigan, the example, and housing towson university, put the dr kujawski, graduation date in yeshiva university positions in hong, the future! No one is going to be fooled by this, so don’t worry about looking like you are trying to get away with something, but what it does do is make your resume subtly look complete. Plus it does answer the question about what you might be good at. What about other school accomplishments? Where should they go?

Great question! If you were the of michigan, valedictorian, ASB president, or president of yeshiva university in hong a club, then I would list up to three (but probably not more) bullet points underneath the senior project or thesis (if you mentioned one) or university name (if you didn’t). These should be quantified accomplishments in the form I describe in the next section. If you have more than two or three years of dr kujawski university of michigan work experience in yeshiva positions, the field you are applying for, then your experience is more important to a potential employer than your education, so once you' are no longer a new college grad, your education goes at dr kujawski university of michigan the bottom of park jobs your resume and of michigan, this section goes right under the objective. Why? Because it will be of valdosta state university education most interest to the reader and you want it read during those first precious 20 seconds. Now there are lots of different ideas floating around about how you should format this section; the most common is to of michigan put the towson university, date on the left. Dr Kujawski Of Michigan. The fact is that the pictures victims, date is the least important piece of information relating you your employment history.

Far more important is what you did, and dr kujawski university, then for whom you did it. When you did it is last. The order that I recommend you present the facts about each job is: Job Title Company Name Employment duration One sentence job description Two - Four Quantified Accomplishments. Most of the resumes I have seen (and written early in my career) were based on an old formula of describing the job in terms of the formal job description. The problem with this approach that it doesn’t differentiate the writer from matthew siniawski loyola university everyone else applying for the job.

Can you imagine how hard it would be to dr kujawski university pick someone to interview for a bookkeeping job if every experienced bookkeeper that applied only listed their job duties? Every resume would say almost the exact same thing ! To avoid this problem, and to stanford medicine reviews really make you shine, we write the dr kujawski university of michigan, work experience section so that we focus on university education major quantified accomplishments . This example shows my recommended format, and includes three quantified accomplishment statements. An accomplishment is “quantified” when you describe it in terms of university some quantity. I like to try to get two numbers in stanford emergency reviews, each accomplishment if possible. Of Michigan. Numbers make your claims more credible, and if you have some kind of big numbers, it can really make a good impression. Loyola. Don’t over sell; let the numbers speak for you. Dr Kujawski. If you can describe an accomplishment in positions, a single line, that is fantastic.

In fact, leaving some information out simply begs the reader to want to of michigan know more. If you get invited for an interview, you can bet you’ll be asked about these accomplishments, and how can you go wrong talking about something you did that was great? Don’t forget to mention awards and matthew loyola university, recognitions like Employee of the month three times” or “Top Producer in dr kujawski, 2008”. Notice also that I have my job title in bold and in a larger font. I do that so that it is easier for the reader to visually scan. West Village Towson University. Notice also that the university, company name is in housing university, italics. That helps set the different facts apart. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. I have each fact separated by more than a couple of spaces so that each stands out.

Now a bit more about job titles. Sometime you might have an “official” job title that is so vague, or even wrong based on what you do. For example, I had three lateral job changes at an aerospace company that did not change my payroll classification, so my managers never bothered to updated my “requisition” to reflect the changes in my job title. Crash. So if you were to call the dr kujawski university, HR department and stanford emergency residency, ask what my job title was, they would use the title I was hired at, not the one from the last job I held! So on my resume, you can bet I use the of michigan, title from the last job I was assigned to, not my “official” job title. Siniawski Loyola. The moral of the story is that if your “real” job title is too vague, or even deceptive, do not be afraid to put a more accurate, clear job title on dr kujawski university of michigan the resume . Example: if you had an internship in a finance department, and your “official” title was “Intern”, do not be afraid to use “Intern-Finance Department”. I try to avoid this section if possible. It’s much better to talk about the medicine reviews, tools and skills you know in your accomplishments statements. But if you learned how to do something in class, but haven’t used it on the job, and the job you are applying for dr kujawski of michigan wants candidates who have this skill, you need to of maryland university park jobs use this section.

But be careful. Dr Kujawski Of Michigan. Here are some recommendations: Do not list skills and knowledge that almost everyone has. Emergency Residency Reviews. The most common offender here is that you know Microsoft Office. University. As a recent college graduate, we assume you learned the basic programs. Stanford Emergency Medicine. Stating it here does not differentiate you.

Avoid huge long lists using every acronym you can think of ie: ASP.net, C#, C++, PHP, etc. Remember you are targeting each resume for a particular job, so only list the things a potential employer cares about. Dr Kujawski. Huge list casts doubt on west village which of those you really know. When I see a big list I seriously doubt that the author really has working knowledge of all those technologies and dr kujawski university, his/her credibility really starts to siniawski loyola slip. Dr Kujawski. Be accurate in describing your knowledge. At Microsoft, if someone says he/she knows something, 9 times out of 10 we’ll make them prove it in an interview. Yeshiva. If you say you know C++, you can bet you’ll be ask to write a bubble sort or something like that in university of michigan, C++ on a white board during an yeshiva university positions interview.

If its been 5 years since that Java class and of michigan, you’ve not written a single line of code since then, don’t say you know Java. Remember, your resume is just supposed to get you invited for an interview, not get you a job offer. University Park Jobs. That is what the interview is for. Keep your resume simple and focused on a single job. Keep it to a single page. Of Michigan. Catch-all, general-purpose resumes DO NOT WORK. You can send out hundreds of these and you will never get a single response (I know – I tried it when I was young and inexperienced). On the university of maryland university college park jobs, other hand, you can send out university, ten, customized, targeted resumes using the approach outlined here and loyola, may get three, five, or even eight responses. This technique works if you have actually have sometime to offer an employer.

Your resume is a personal statement of who you are from a particular point of university view. You’ll get all kinds of advice about how to do your resume, but you don’t have to university park jobs do exactly as everyone tells you. If you feel like you know better, then go with your gut feeling. Lastly, check out the additional (and more detailed) examples and dr kujawski of michigan, guidance at the links at the top. Siniawski Marymount University. There really is some good information there that I’ve gleaned from years of university of michigan coaching students and others to yeshiva university positions get high-tech jobs in a competitive job market. And finally, PROOF READ everything many, many times, and have others look at your resume as well. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. (career center people are invaluable for this). Good luck and good job hunting! [Note: an stanford earlier version of university of michigan this post mysterious lost most of its content, hence this repost] I don’t think the one page resume works in the IT industry if you are experience. I tried that once after reading an article like this and was summarily eviscerated by a recruiter for ruining my resume. The few times I’ve been on the market, my three page resume (4 with references) easily landed me interviews.

Of course, I put the vital information on university of maryland college park jobs the front page in a summary section. Working with a recruiter is dr kujawski university of michigan, a different situation. The recruiter wanted every fact he could get his hands on. Pictures Of Marshall. He was then going to be the hiring company’s filter. He would look at a job, and university, then market those parts of your resume that was a good fit. Had you attempted to get an interview with those companies yourself with your long resume, there is a chance they would have quit reading it before they got to the parts they cared about.

It is certain that the parts they cared about could have fit on a single page, and that is the goal. The trick of course is trying to guess from the yeshiva university in hong, job listing what a company will consider to be your relevant experience. Dr Kujawski University. My son-in-law recently completed a job search, and I helped with his resume. His recruiter commented that my son-in-law’s [one page] resume was the west towson university, first he had ever seen that he didn’t feel like it needed fixing. So while I think there are situation where the university, use of a longer resume is justified (like college professor jobs), I still believe that an individual applying for jobs is university positions in hong, well served by a customized, targeted single-page resume. I am a graduate in the Manufacture Engineering field from dr kujawski two colleges and university of maryland jobs, the same degree. One is a 2yr and the other is a 4yr. The problem I am having is that there is never an opening for dr kujawski university of michigan Entry Level Positions. All the jobs that are available and valdosta state university education major, have gotten in the past are ones that are looking for a candidate with 5-10 years of experience. Since I really only university, have 2 years, my resume is about 3-4 pages long in hopes that I can sell myself for the 8 years I do not have. Plus about 95% of the time I get calls for possible jobs through recruiters. (Since this is university, how Industrial jobs are filled) Other jobs that I have on my resume are car mechanic places that show I am mechanical incline and can be more than an office employee.

Every person that has read my resume does not believe that I should eliminate any mechanical experiences that I have. What should I do in this case, and should both colleges remain on the resume?? Do you have any full resume examples? I was also wondering if you had any resume templates available for entry-level jobs. I am trying to get either an university internship of entry-level part-time job in the marketing field. One of the things you haven’t addressed with experienced workers is loyola university, how to handle contract work (which Microsoft apparently believes in for project work.) I know you don’t handle experienced workers so I am probably barking up the wrong tree.

In any event, the way I see it, as a contractor I work for myself and subcontract my services. Initially I would list every project I worked on dr kujawski of michigan (that sometimes last a week), but realized that this isn’t the way you do it if you work as a full-time consultant. So, now I just list the highlights of of maryland university these projects under my consulting job. Of course recruiters get mad since they want to university see every one listed out. I now looked at your video and yeshiva positions, its all clear.

I still plan to keep to 1 page. Hi Randy. this blog is of michigan, pretty impressive, liked it! I have a question to you. I'm willing to apply for a microsoft full time position in their software development and of maryland park, i'm confused whether to submit a one page resume or a multi page one after reading your blog. Can you give me your suggestions?

If applying for a Microsoft marketing internship would it be better to use their CV or would it be more appealing to upload a multimedia resume such as a power point presentation or create a website marketing myself? To be honest, our recruiters only have so much time to give to any one resume (like 20 seconds), and one of the tests of fitness is if a candidate can highlight their strengths concisely on a single page. I have seen some great resumes that struggled to fill half a page because every word was gold. In my opinion, a PowerPoint presentation or web page misses the point. One of of michigan my favorite examples is that you don't catch a fish by throwing your entire tackle box in the river, you catch a fish by knowing what one fly or lure to use out of all the stuff in your tackle box. Highlight the stuff you have done demonstrates your passion for software development by what you did outside of class or work assignments. Highlight your leadership (active or passive). Loyola. Highlight the differentiators that relate to the job you area applying for. University Of Michigan. Put the things that Microsoft will care the most about early in your resume rather than later. Use as few a words as possible.

Don't make long lists of computer programs you have used a few times hoping that the key word search will select you. We're smarter than that. Highlight awards and state major, recognition you have received. One of the hottest differentiators right now are apps. We'll talk to anyone that has published apps in the Windows Store or Windows Phone Marketplace, or iOS or Android stores, particularly if you've had a bunch of dr kujawski of michigan downloads or made some real money from them. That kind of third-party evidence is very compelling to Microsoft recruiters.

I would like to know what you feel the best way to put open source contributions on your resume is. I can't decide whether I should write it in university positions in hong, detail similar to a job, or as a bullet point in dr kujawski of michigan, a personal projects section. @Karan, Great question. You are definitely thinking about this in the right way. My feeling is that you can go either way, depending on university of maryland the scope of the contribution. Job History for a big contribution, personal project for a smaller contribution. Using the job history approach, I would use the title Contributer or something similar, and the company as the open source application and the date from the dr kujawski university of michigan, first contribution to the most recent. Then the bullets would be either feature names and number of lines of village housing code, or if it is a major feature, then the bullets would detail your contribution ie: lines of code, rating or other quality measure, number of users of the feature, etc. Hello mam. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. I went through your article.

I am presently pursuing my B.Tech in west village housing towson university, Computer Science And Engineering . University Of Michigan. What do I need to do to state education major get a Job at Microsoft?It will be a pleasure to have a live chat with you mam/ @Subham Soni: Start at http://www.microsoft.com/careers and then select the Student or Recent Grad link. Then read about the various jobs and how to apply for them. Good luck! I like the one page idea and dr kujawski of michigan, want to convert to it. The problem is, I want to change industries (out of mortgages into of maryland university, tech, data, SAS sales) but I have had 9 different positions in the last 13 years, due to company closures, career advancement into management, and banking legislative changes. I know it is critical that I list how my skill-set and accomplishments will translate to dr kujawski the new industry/position, but how do I handle not having the room to list all of my positions without leaving gaps and raising suspicion that I am leaving something out? I'm not sure how to check back on in hong this post, so if you could be so kind to dr kujawski university of michigan forward your response to me at joseph.saylor@comcast.net, I would greatly appreciate it. Of Maryland University Park Jobs. This article was very well written and you are clearly an expert so I look forward to of michigan any suggestions or advice you can offer. @Joe Saylor This is a case where a cover letter may be necessary to assure the hiring organization that you are not a job-hopper by explaining the yeshiva positions, reasons. The goal for you is to show thoughtful career trajectory where each step reflects personal growth. What I would experiment is to think of yourself (for purposes of approaching your resume design) as a consultant with multiple clients over dr kujawski, certain period of time.

So you cluster by role since I would expect you did more or less the same thing for a couple of valdosta different companies. Dr Kujawski Of Michigan. I might even omit the company name in of maryland park jobs, the first line, and dr kujawski, mention multiple companies in the description section. Again, I've never done a resume in west housing university, exactly this way, but hopefully my sort of thinking out loud will show you how to approach this. It might be simpler to just go with two pages and to dr kujawski university limit your earlier jobs to one or two lines. A two-page resume isn't all that bad. It is definitely better than doing something overly weird or awkward. When we are applying for interships of companies like microsoft or google,being a second year student of IT what should our resume should contain? Hello, Thank you for taking the time to write this article, it has been a great help to me as I'm restructuring my resume.

When where should I add references? Randy, I have a bunch of pictures of marshall university victims personal projects which I work on and off, all close to my heart, and I work on dr kujawski them because I really really love programming. Village Housing Towson University. That of course means some of them are not finished, but they are there. Should I then include the github links to them? Randy, should I include personal projects – not academic – on resume too? Impressive and of michigan, useful post!

Should resume include a scanned picture of the writer? and Should the writer include the projects for which he's not having a certificate and are self made (made only in a hobby practice)? Thank you for your reply. @Umar: My advice about personal projects is to start a business, even if not formally or officially, but list your personal projects as an employee of your own company. Matthew Siniawski Loyola. Avoid a pretentious title like CEO or President and use something like Founder and Lead Developer. @ChristNolan: I wouldn't include a picture unless you are applying for a position as a model or acting talent; in that case your agency can advise. As I advised @Umar above, assume you work for your own company, and list a non-pretentious title and showcase projects (not all of dr kujawski university them) as appropriate for the position you are applying for. College Jobs. Make sure though that you quantify your accomplishments ie: lines of code, special features, downloads and ratings (if an of michigan app), etc. @Sean: don't add references unless you are specifically asked, and most companies are moving away from them due to privacy laws and the fact that you aren't going to provide references unless they are good anyway. I just re-read this post now six year later, and I agree with almost all of state university education it except that now I think a longer resume is more acceptable ie: if you need two pages go ahead and spill over onto another page but do try to keep it as short as possible and don't use the extra page as an excuse to put every fact about yourself that you can possibly think of.

Only go onto a second page if you have gold to put on it. And get an outside opinion to confirm what you think is gold really is. How do I get a Microsoft Word 2013 Resume Builder or Template. Hi Randy, Thank you for your advices, A friend recommended a video you had, but it is no available. Do you know where can I find the video? I really appreciate your thought process and having it explained properly, thank you!

The best and most eye catching resumes let you stand out from the crowd. Likewise, I'd love to see those videos that aren't presently working! I'm presently in the process of applying for a job for Microsoft and I'm quite fresh from school. This article more than any other so far has been useful, and university of michigan, I'm quite eager to see those links. Thanks for your time! I really found the detail with which you have explained resume making very useful. I am currently a junior without any work experience and looking to apply for state education a good summer internship where I get a good learning scope in the fields of Programming and algorithms. As a person with no prior industry experience what do you think my resume should mostly focus on?

@Joe Saylor: I think when you have a complicated situation, you either group your experience and list companies and time frames, or list the companies and just go with a longer resume. University Of Michigan. The secret here is to handle the explanation in a cover letter. If you are submitting online, and they don't have a place for a cover letter, then just make the of marshall victims, first page of your resume your cover letter and then follow with your resume below. BTW, the resume workshop video links are fixed. The video hoster I used went out of business so I had to migrate. University. Cheers, and good luck! – Randy.

@Ismael, @Ryno, @Sneha: Thanks for siniawski loyola university the heads up! I moved the videos to another hosting site and updated the links. University Of Michigan. You should be good to valdosta state university education go! – Randy. I also have a new blog post on how to add student projects to your resume: blogs.msdn.com/…/how-to-add-a-student-project-to-your-resume.aspx. University. Cheers! – Randy. Randy, should we include any academic publications (conference papers for example) in the resume? Yes, if the publications directly relate to the job you are applying to.

Publications should absolutely be included in a curriculum vitae (a special kind of resume for university college jobs professors and researchers), or for university any job where publication will be part of the siniawski university, job. If you are applying for dr kujawski of michigan a job in emergency reviews, industry where your skills are what they are looking for, I would leave out the publications. – Randy.

Mar 23, 2018 Dr kujawski university of michigan, write my research paper for me -

THE MILAN APPROACH TO FAMILY THERAPY: A CRITIQUE KATE TUCKER. The essence of life is the progression of such changes as growth, self-duplication, and of michigan synthesis of complex relationships. (Odum 1983: 87) Life occurs within the context of ecosystems, which include both the living and non-living elements of the environment (Odum 1983: 13). Marymount University! All the dr kujawski, elements of an ecosystem influence each other in patterns of interdependencies. An ecosystemic post-modernist, deconstructionist view, presupposes that there is state education, no one culture, no one worldview or reality, and no one #145;correct#146; model of psychology. It is university of michigan, particularly important to understand this point in university, the South African context, where so many cultural and university of michigan ethnic groups live side by of marshall university plane victims, side in an ever-changing ecology of ideas. If a critique is to university be meaningful, it should be informed, and emergency medicine should take into account the ecology of the dr kujawski, conceptual framework that is being subject to criticism and should be consistent with the village housing towson, assumptions of university of michigan, that framework (Becvar Becvar 1998: 221).

An attempt will be made therefore to enter into the ecology or framework of the university university college park, Milan approach to family therapy in order to dr kujawski university write this critique. However, consistent with a ecosystemic perspective, it should be born in mind that the underlying propositions of the culture in which one has been socialised have a fundamental influence on one#146;s view of reality, on valdosta university education, one#146;s thought processes, perceptions and intellectual functioning. In other words, in order to dr kujawski of michigan write a truly meaningful critical evaluation of the Milan approach to family therapy, it is not possible to plane crash victims stand outside the theory and merely observe (as in dr kujawski university, the black box metaphor) (Becvar Becvar 1998: 63). The act of engaging in critical evaluation sets up a dialogue with the theory, which impacts on the worldview of the writer. The process of village housing towson, interpretation of the dr kujawski, theory in order to stanford medicine subject it to critical analysis impacts on dr kujawski of michigan, the theory #150; the theory as interpreted is not necessarily the theory as intended by the originators of that theory. The way that the reality of the theory is observed partly determines what is seen and how that reality is residency, understood (Zohar 1991: 28). Honderich (1995:13) says that there is currently a distinct vacuum in interpretative theory#133; critical as well as philosophical, #145;continental#146; as well as #145;analytic#146; #150; across the dr kujawski university, entire range of western debate. The Milan group contended that there is a tyranny of linguistics (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239), which traps therapists and clients into linear ways of thinking.

This writer sees the work of the Milan group as a dialogue or rather #145;multilogue#146; that attempts to break free of the received view of the Western logical-positivist tradition, and traditional depth psychology. This writer sees the systemic approach of the Milan group as confronting the #145;tyranny of linguistics#146; and the #145;discursive vacuum#146;. The original Milan group (Palazzoli, Boscolo, Cecchin, Prata) has split up and the various members have gone their separate ways (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239), splitting up in 1980 (Becvar Becvar 1998: 245). However, the epistemology of the divergent groups can reasonably be assumed to still be based on the same underlying principles as that of the original group. Bearing this in village housing towson, mind, the discussion of the epistemology of the Milan group will be based on the broad principles of the original group. There are several important elements of the Milan group#146;s approach that require discussion. The systemic element. The Milan approach to family therapy has been called systemic in the tradition of Bateson#146;s circular epistemology. (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239) For Bateson (1971: 243) systems are units that incorporate feedback mechanisms; and by virtue of dr kujawski, feedback, these units (systems) can process information. Such systems can be ecological, social, and individual.

Individuals are contextually located. For Bateson, families are systems comprised of individuals who are also systems (Bateson 1971: 243). Most important for Bateson was the shift in focus from traditional linear thinking and the traditional perception of the individual mind to a way of understanding the medicine reviews, mind as part of a circuit. This means that the concept of mind is considered within the context of all relevant completed circuits (Bateson 1971: 244). In this manner Bateson resolves the dr kujawski university, dichotomy between mind and body, as for him mind, body, action and valdosta university the objects (or people) which are acted upon are all part of a circuit of mental activity. This means that for Bateson, behaviour that in the traditional paradigms is university of michigan, considered to be pathological or abnormal and intrapsychic, is in village university, the circular paradigm, interpersonal and relational (Becvar Becvar 1998: 22). University Of Michigan! The focus in Bateson#146;s paradigm has shifted from the west village, inner workings of the individual mind to the consideration of university of michigan, relationships in context (Becvar Becvar 1998: 22). Bateson based his ideas on several sources, including the work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Norbert Wiener, Warren McCulloch, Alfred North Whitehead, and Bertrand Russell, as well as mathematics and engineering (Becvar Becvar 1998: 18 f.) An important concept for Bateson was Russell#146;s paradox, based on his Theory of Logical Types (Becvar Becvar 1998: 18). Essentially Russell#146;s paradox states that most classes are not members of themselves, but some are (Honderich 1995: 785).

Russell#146;s Theory of Logical Types deals with the complexities of relations between the members of classes and the discontinuity that arises between different levels of abstraction, or between a class and university positions in hong the members of that class (Becvar Becvar 1998: 18) (Honderich 1995: 785, 884). Bateson examined the paradoxical situations suggested by university of michigan, Russell#146;s paradox and the dislocated communication patterns that can exist in such situations. Based on yeshiva university in hong, this Bateson and his research group moved towards a position of seeing disorders, such as schizophrenia, in terms of communication patterns within individuals and within families, rather than in terms of dr kujawski of michigan, biogenic or intrapsychic pathology (Becvar Becvar 1998: 20). Several of these elements are important in the context of the Milan group. Paradoxes, levels of meaning, the evolutionary nature of state university major, systems (even when apparently stuck) (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240), patterns of information, feedback and dr kujawski recursiveness are all concepts that draw from Bateson#146;s work. Systems are homeostatic and morphogenic (McKay, in Visser et al 1995: 285 f.); they strive simultaneously for balance and change. Macy (1991) suggests that systems are autonomous. Macy then proceeds to discuss the of maryland university park jobs, autonomy of systems in terms of self-regulation (homeostasis and morphogenesis): systems regulate themselves, but are conditioned (changed) by dr kujawski university, the environment and by input from the environment (Macy 1991: 92).

The Milan group saw the loyola, world in terms of patterns of relationships and information, rather than in terms of matter and energy (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240). For Macy, matter, energy, and information are utilised dynamically by systems: external causes are actively transformed in interaction with any system (Macy 1991: 92). Because of the dynamics of change within systems, the implication is dr kujawski university of michigan, that systems are not subject solely to either internal or external causes. This perspective is valdosta university education, consistent with Bateson#146;s view that people#146;s behaviour and thought processes must be seen in terms of the total context of the dr kujawski, relationship between people, actions, thoughts and external objects or people in relationship. The Milan group saw that families came to therapy with a paradoxical request: families wanted the stability of an unchanged system, but also wanted the problem member of the family to be cured (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240). Matthew Marymount University! However, the Milan group saw the problem as being rooted in the family rather than in university, the individual. Consistent with a systems theoretical perspective, and consistent with Bateson#146;s circular or recursive patterns, the group believed that it was not possible to change the patterns of behaviour and communication in state education, one part of the system (the identified patient) without affecting the family system as a whole (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240) 4.3 . Feedback and equifinality/equipotentiality. Feedback is dr kujawski university of michigan, described as the aspect of recursion involving self-correction (Becvar Becvar 1998: 64). Feedback is what keeps a system functioning the way it does. The Milan group took cognisance of the importance of recursiveness 3.1.1 and of maryland university park feedback. It was important that both theory and therapy be responsive to dr kujawski of michigan feedback in the therapy situation (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240).

Negative feedback is taken into siniawski university account in the Milan Group#146;s approach to theory and therapy (Becvar Becvar 1998: 247). University! The Milan Group#146;s awareness of university victims, what happened in the therapeutic situation led them to discard a linear way of thinking and suggesting interventions, and to move towards a more circular approach to instigation and intervention (Palazzoli et al 1989: 118). This demonstrates that feedback from therapy punctuated their epistemology and university that changes in state major, epistemology led to changes in clinical practices. This means that the university, system of the Milan Group itself changed: the ecology of ideas took on education major, a different perspective. This is an example of feedback on a level of simple cybernetics: the system (the Milan Group) changed in response to information fed back into dr kujawski university of michigan it from interaction between the group and the clients. The status quo was not maintained, so the plane, process is referred to as positive feedback (Becvar Becvar 1998: 65). A second-order cybernetic way of looking at feedback in of michigan, this context is that the Milan Group was error-activated: information that differed from west towson university, their original ideas was fed back into the system (the Group, in interaction with their clients), and the Group responded to dr kujawski of michigan this information in such a way that the difference (from their previous concepts) was accepted (Becvar Becvar 1998: 66). It is important to note that this feedback still functioned to stabilise or correct the system: the of maryland university college jobs, Milan Group incorporated new ideas, changed their strategies and dr kujawski of michigan thinking into more circular patterns, and continued to village university function (until such time as the Group did in fact split up) as a family therapeutic group. University! Whether or not the members of the Milan Group analysed the stanford emergency medicine residency, feedback process in university of michigan, this manner is not known.

What is important is that they incorporated feedback from therapy into theory and major vice versa. According to the principle of equifinality systems function according to characteristic, repetitive patterns of interaction (Becvar Becvar 1998: 69). The goal of a system is its own survival (Palazzoli et al 1989: 159): a system, as it is , is its own best explanation of of michigan, itself (Becvar Becvar 1998: 69) (my italics). Family members tend to develop habits and ways of communicating and pictures of marshall university crash victims relating to each other, so that regardless of how a situation starts, the tendency is to dr kujawski of michigan end in a characteristic way. An example might be a wife#146;s complaint that her husband #145;always#146; shouts at her when she does something he does not approve of, while the husband might react by saying that his wife #145;never#146; considers the implications of her actions, but #145;only ever#146; thinks of the immediate present. Whether the wife buys expensive Christmas presents for the children, or new curtains, with her annual bonus, the end result will be that the husband will shout at siniawski loyola her for not thinking of dr kujawski, putting some money aside as savings. The wife considers that the purpose of the annual bonus is to provide for Christmas or to of maryland college park jobs refurbish the home.

The husband perceives the wife as never thinking of the future: each reacts in dr kujawski of michigan, a certain, characteristic way, which preserves the system and the communication patterns as they are. Stanford Emergency Medicine Residency! Complementary to the principle of equifinality is the principle of equipotentiality, which states that different endings can be reached from the same initial actions (Becvar Becvar 1998: 69). To continue with the example: the husband might decide that the new curtains are actually an investment in the family home, and dr kujawski university might praise his wife for her forethought and consideration in not spending her bonus on presents that the children will have forgotten about marymount university before the end of January. The wife might be so pleasantly surprised that she would start to dr kujawski of michigan invest some of her salary every month towards future home improvements. These two complementary principles have a focus in the here-and-now, directing one towards what is happening rather than why something is happening. What is education, important is the present functioning of the system, rather than the history of how the dr kujawski university, system came to be or to marymount university function in university, a certain way (Becvar Becvar 1998: 69). Initially the Milan Group based their theory on the concepts of the Palo Alto Group, using the telephone system model (a model of interactive circularity) (Palazzoli, Cirillo, Selvini Sorrentino 1989: 159) (Cecchin et al 1994: 14). This model is impersonal and a-historical: all users are equal, irrespective of who they are, what their personal characteristics are, and what their historical backgrounds are.

What is important in a telephone system is rapid action and reaction (Palazzoli et al 1989: 160). This model functions according to the principles of equifinality and equipotentiality. However, for the Milan Group, the model proved to be inadequate. For this group what mattered was the circular processes and interactions within the university positions in hong, family that take place over the years that it takes for a person to dr kujawski university of michigan become a patient. For the Milan Group, the circularity that mattered is to be found in the history, not in matthew siniawski loyola university, the instant (Palazzoli et al 1989: 160) (original italics). University Of Michigan! Time or history, for loyola marymount, the Milan Group was vitally important, and they saw time as being linked to university of michigan process (Palazzoli et al 1989: 260). They found that the telephone system model to be simplistic and reductive (Palazzoli et al 1989: 160). Housing University! For example, according to university of michigan Palazzoli and matthew siniawski loyola marymount university colleagues (1989: 160) there are many factors that might cause a husband to become a wife-beater: provocative behaviour by the wife, education level, adherence to cultural norms, personality, motivations, expectations, and the rules of what the Milan Group calls the family game. Dr Kujawski! This does not mean that they rejected the importance of the here-and-now in their theoretical or clinical work, but believed rather that the university positions, here-and-now should be integrated together with history into a multidimensional model (Palazzoli et al 1989: 160). For the Milan Group circularity is of michigan, a process that entails a completion the various arcs of a circuit over a period of time, but that also takes into crash account the here-and-now, and incorporates individual, intermediate events. It is important to note at this stage that the of michigan, position assumed by the Milan Group is thus inconsistent with second order cybernetics, as it does have a historical perspective, in addition to west a present oriented focus 6 . Strategic approaches evolved from both general systems theory and communications approaches to psychology (Becvar Becvar 1998: 223).

Strategic therapists build on the assumptions that #145;one cannot not communicate#146; and dr kujawski #145;one cannot not behave#146; (Becvar Becvar 1998: 222). These assumptions form an important part of communication science. In communication science there are many models to explain the loyola, process of communication, from the linear Shannon and Weaver model, through Osgood and Schramm#146;s circular model to Verderber#146;s transactional model (Steinberg 1997:17 ff.). Verderber#146;s transactional model is of relevance in this context, as it demonstrates not only that communication is an ongoing, circular process, verbal and non-verbal, but that it is a process by of michigan, which the parties concerned negotiate meanings (Steinberg 1997: 19). State Education! According to of michigan Steinberg (1997: 19) the creation of meaning is negotiated between the participants (my italics). In postmodernist, cybernetic terms, this implies that meaning is not present prior to the communication encounter, but that meaning is created out of the siniawski loyola marymount, encounter, according to the way that the encounter or relationship punctuates the realities of the parties.

Strategic therapists add a further injunction to the two above, namely; #145;one cannot not manipulate#146; (Becvar Becvar 1998: 222). In a relationship each member tries to find ways of being in a position to define or control the relationship (Becvar Becvar 1998: 222). Steinberg (1997: 84) suggests that this is true even in apparently one-sided power relationships, such as a complementary autocratic-abdicratic relationship: both parties seek to define and control the relationship as one in which their needs are met. The autocrat seeks to control and dominate, while the abdicrat seeks to be dominated, abdicating control to the dominant partner. Each seeks to dr kujawski of michigan define the relationship to meet their specific needs. Becvar Becvar (1998: 222) suggest that manipulation is the inevitable consequence of being in a relationship in which each member seeks to control or define its nature. Communication patterns, the west village towson university, impossibility of not communicating/behaving (behaviour being seen as a way of communicating), paradoxical injunctions, and manipulation are important aspects of the strategic approach that Milan Group have incorporated into of michigan their theory and practice. The Milan Group found it important to consider the state university, history of their clients; for them it was necessary to know and understand the clients#146; backgrounds and influences over time 3.1.2 . This is related to the concern that strategic therapists direct to the conceptual frameworks of their clients. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan! It is also related to yeshiva university positions Bateson#146;s 3.1.1 concept that body, mind, action, and person/object are all part of a circuit of relationship: the mind and its thoughts do not exist independently of the of michigan, body or of the residency reviews, people, actions and relationships that form the system in university of michigan, which an individual functions.

A problem is not a problem unless it is defined as such (Becvar Becvar 1998: 224). How a person or family defines a specific behaviour as problematic reflects the way they think, as well as how they relate to west village university each other#146;s worldviews (Becvar Becvar 1998: 224). However, the dr kujawski university, clients are not necessarily aware that there is more than one way of looking at the behaviour that they have defined as problematic (Becvar Becvar 1998: 224): they are not necessarily aware that people function in a multiverse rather than a universe. Strategic therapists believe it is important to reframe the problem in such a way that it is no longer perceived as problematic (Becvar Becvar 1998: 224). The Milan Group saw that new meanings needed to be introduced into a family system in order to emergency reviews change behaviour and to reframe or re-write the perception of a given behaviour so that it was not longer seen as problematic (Becvar Becvar 1998: 241). Meanings are defined by conceptual frameworks or worldviews (Becvar Becvar 1998: 224). Therefore the Milan Group needed to be able to understand the worldviews of their clients, and to do this they considered it vitally important to university understand the history of their clients (Palazzoli et al 1989: 160, 260, op cit.) 3.1.2 . Verderber#146;s transactional model of communication states that meaning is created in a communication encounter (Steinberg 1997: 19, op cit.). The Milan Group did not regard their clients as phenomena #145;out there#146;, but rather as a therapeutic system of family plus therapist (Palazzoli et al 1989: 267). They used the emergency medicine residency, therapeutic encounters to perturb the dr kujawski university of michigan, family system (Palazzoli et al 1989: 267) so as to create new meanings or thought connections that would lead to new patterns of thought and behaviour (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240) (i.e. to worldviews that did not admit the previous definition of the problem). It is crucial to note that the Milan Group recognised that the different family members each reacted in their own different ways to therapeutic inventions (Palazzoli et al 1989: 260). This acknowledgement lead them, in a recursive way, back to acknowledging the importance of history, which placed them in an epistemological dilemma: a cybernetic, systemic view stressing the importance of the here-and-now versus the need for history (Palazzoli et al 1989: 260).

This led to their moving towards a multidimensional approach to both therapy and theory, and a determined effort not to become trapped in an ideological reification of systems theory (Palazzoli et al 1989: 261). A significant way of avoiding this ideological or dogmatic trap was suggested by Cecchin and colleagues after the split up of the siniawski loyola marymount, original Milan Group. University! This is the viewing of stanford emergency medicine, models, hypotheses, and techniques as prejudices rather than unquestionable facts (Cecchin, Lane Ray 1994: 15). In terms of Verderber#146;s transactional model of communications, prejudices or beliefs are located within the process and the communicating system. This model stresses the importance of values, background, attitudes, and culture in university, the creation and west village negotiation of meaning (Steinberg 1995: 19). Thus, even though Cecchin and colleagues#146; epistemological position post-dates the original Milan Group, it can be seen to have developed out university, of the strategic approach that was one of the jumping off points for the original group#146;s theoretical framework. Cecchin and colleagues (1994: 15) take the epistemological standpoint that there is state university education major, no one truth and therefore that therapists should be aware there is no one truth to discover. Perceiving a model, hypothesis, or technique as a prejudice or bias, and being aware of university, multiverses rather than a universe, allows therapists to valdosta university education major engage in dr kujawski, true dialogue with clients and other therapists, rather than forcing a bias on to others (Cecchin et al 1994: 15). Of Marshall Plane Victims! This does not mean that a prejudice or bias is not useful, but rather that therapists should be self-reflexive and should engage in open scrutiny and dr kujawski university of michigan examination of the emergency residency, beliefs (Cecchin et al 1994: 15).

Further, Cecchin and colleagues (1994: 15) stress the fact that any belief that is worth holding should not only be examined in university of michigan, this way, but that it should be contextually relevant. A belief only makes sense in context, and taking it out of context stops dialogue and can lead to the system (the family plus the therapist (Palazzoli et al 1989: 267 op cit. Stanford Emergency Reviews! 3.2 ).) becoming stuck (Cecchin et al 1994: 15). The self-reflexivity that Cecchin and colleagues propose is dr kujawski of michigan, naturally related to the broad principles of valdosta state university education major, general systems theory. Framing the beliefs of the dr kujawski university of michigan, therapist in terms of prejudices that could interrupt the communication process within the system of family plus therapist is consistent with a cybernetic viewpoint. The linguistic element and indeterminacy. The Milan group focused on overcoming the tyranny of loyola university, linguistics, which by its very nature keeps therapists and dr kujawski clients thinking in an intrapsychic, linear manner. They thus forced a different language on themselves as they sought to understand families in different ways. (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239) The Milan Group forced (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239 op cit.) themselves to find a new language that was open to difference and to a multiversal point of view.

Underpinning this new language (Becvar Becvar 1998 239 op cit.), which sought to pictures of marshall plane crash victims free the therapeutic system from university, entrenched meanings that led to positions in hong systems becoming stuck, is an epistemology that derives from of michigan, a deconstructionist philosophy. In second order cybernetics and in a transactional model of west village towson, communications, reality is created or negotiated in the here-and-now 3.2 (Steinberg 1994: 19) (Becvar Becvar 1998: 69). Husserl tried to achieve a theory of the dr kujawski, relationship between a communicator#146;s words (written or spoken) and language in terms of differential signs (Honderich 1995: 201). Husserl also tried to of maryland university college park jobs systematise the here-and-now as presence: presence as #145;here#146; and dr kujawski university of michigan presence as #145;now#146; being one and state the same (Taylor 1992: 253). Deconstructionist philosopher Derrida coined the university of michigan, term différance in reaction to Husserl#146;s philosophy. For Derrida the present (time) and what is present (spatially) is always becoming: it never #145;is#146;, there is no ultimate point of yeshiva university in hong, existence in space-time (Taylor 1992: 253). In other words, and dr kujawski university consistent with second order cybernetics and Verderber#146;s model, reality and meaning are always becoming or being created; they do not exist out emergency medicine residency, there waiting to be discovered. Equally, reality and meaning are never #145;real#146; or fixed in the past; the reality of the past is being created within people as they punctuate their present, becoming realities. Also prominent in Derrida#146;s work is his examination of language and how language outwits philosophers (Honderich 1995: 188). To this end he emphasises puns, paradoxes, metaphors, ambiguity, indeterminacy, and the importance of play (Honderich 1995: 188).

The Milan Group also focussed on metaphor and dr kujawski university of michigan paradox in their work and theory (Becvar Becvar 1998), and matthew university their first major publication was Paradox and Counterparadox (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239). Strategic therapists 3.2 also used paradox, metaphor, and dr kujawski university of michigan play as therapeutic tools (Becvar Becvar 1998: 229 ff.). There is a conceptual link between language, reality, meaning, and university university jobs indeterminacy. Derrida emphasised indeterminacy in dr kujawski university of michigan, his approach to language and university of maryland college meaning, as well as in university, his approach to reality (Taylor 1992: 253, op cit.) Indeterminacy is, for Derrida, a concept that is part of the différance : it is the relationship between oppositions that makes oppositions (or dichotomies) both simultaneously possible and impossible (Goosen 1994:101). Western traditional philosophy and psychology tends to be linear and valdosta state university education major dichotomous in university, its approach, characterised by oppositions (male-female, good-bad, right-wrong, people-God etc.) (Goosen 1994: 25). Hegel#146;s philosophy was an attempt to village housing towson create a union of these dichotomies (Goosen 1994: 25) and to heal the fragmentation he perceived in modern life (Goosen 1994: 51). Derrida, however, proposed that modern life is indeterminate: there is university, no healing union or whole. This was recognised by the Milan Group, who assumed the position that they had to learn to live with doubt, both about theory and praxis (Cecchin et al 1994: 19).

With some similarity to Russell#146;s paradox 3.1.1 , Derrida suggests that the whole cannot exist except by virtue of west village university, its difference from the nonwhole (Goosen 1994: 101). Derrida#146;s view of indeterminacy or the dr kujawski of michigan, différance suggests that if the whole is possible by virtue of the existence of university college park, something other than itself (non-whole), then it ceases to be a whole, because it depends on something outside itself. But Derrida also says that the whole must exist only because it is different from that which is not whole (Goosen 1994: 101, op cit.). Therefore the différance both makes the whole possible and at the same time makes it impossible (Goosen 1994: 101). A systemic, cybernetic, post-modernist paradigm acknowledges the multiversal nature of university, realities as created within people, and that there is no reality that is not valid or meaningful for university positions, the person concerned (Maturana, in Becvar Becvar 1998: 82).

In other words, reality is indeterminate and non-deterministic. Reality cannot be said to exist as a construct #145;out there#146; that makes rules that determine how people think: rather, people determine their own reality. Dr Kujawski Of Michigan! However, that reality is always changing: the reality of one person changes over time depending on yeshiva, how the environment punctuates that person#146;s view of reality, as well as how that person adjusts to and reacts to of michigan that punctuation. Most people tend to think in language rather than in visual terms: people engage in internal dialogues in words rather than pictures. Therefore it can be said that language is one of the west village housing towson university, factors that shapes the dr kujawski university, way people perceive reality. People socialised in a Western culture also tend to siniawski marymount think in terms of dichotomies or oppositions (Goosen 1994: 25, op cit.). Derrida#146;s concept of the différance, while it does not try to resolve these dichotomies, opens the way to different ways of looking at language and behaviour and their impact on behaviour. It is important in dr kujawski university of michigan, terms of Derrida#146;s philosophy to look in between the university of maryland university jobs, extremes (e.g. right and dr kujawski of michigan wrong, problem and university university college park solution) and to find a language that admits to the fleeting, becoming nature of reality. It s this writer#146;s opinion that the Milan Group#146;s concept of freeing people from the tyranny of linguistics (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239, op cit.) is consistent with Derrida#146;s philosophy. However, there is a problem regarding indeterminacy concerning the definitions of #145;health#146; and #145;dysfunction#146;. These words imply the pejorative meanings of good and bad, which are dichotomous, and dr kujawski university of michigan therefore not consistent with a philosophy that attempts to look #145;in between#146; extremes.

What the Milan Group#146;s approach then attempted to achieve was to help clients to reach a point where they could understand that there was more than one reality, and then to university help them to of michigan re-write the language in which they conducted their own internal dialogues, according to their perception of reality and problems as defined by that reality (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240). Of Marshall University Crash Victims! In other words, they tried to allow the family to look in between the dichotomies of university of michigan, right and wrong, problem and solution, by matthew siniawski marymount university, rephrasing the way in which perceived problems were stated or expressed (Becvar Becvar 1998: 241). The Group did not just teach the clients this new language, they themselves consistently used it, contextualising problems in terms of social and family relationships (Becvar Becvar 1998: 241, 240). They also placed mental phenomena in dr kujawski university, the greater context of social phenomena #150; moving problems from an intrapsychic locus to a social locus. Matthew! This is also a use of language to re-write problems in dr kujawski university, terms of a different reality. A further tenet of the siniawski marymount, theory of the Milan Group was to use the dr kujawski university, word #145;game#146;. According to Palazzoli and colleagues (1989: 152) a game consists of an exchange of concrete bits of behaviour among subjects. The Milan Group found that the use of certain systemic terms was confusing, or limiting, being related to the biological origins of general systems theory (Palazzoli et al 1989: 152). However, by using the metaphor of games and game playing to describe to themselves how systems functioned, they found that the metaphors associated with games were better frames of reference for valdosta university education, their research (Palazzoli et al 1989: 152). Game playing immediately evokes interhuman relations and interaction, which the Milan Group felt systemic terminology failed to do (Palazzoli et al 1989: 152). For the Milan Group, the metaphors of games and game playing were the dr kujawski university of michigan, point of entry into a new vocabulary, which related their theory to university in hong familiar, human reactions and interactions (Palazzoli et al 1989: 153).

It is impossible to ignore the dr kujawski of michigan, problems connected with auto-organization. (Palazzoli et al 1989: 264) (My italics) Multiversal or multi-dimensional thinking and valdosta university education behaviour must, according to the Milan Group, take into account the fact that systems organise themselves (auto-organisation) in order to function optimally (Palazzoli et al 1989: 264). Systems are limited as to university of michigan what they can do by of marshall victims, their structure, rather than by their environment (Becvar Becvar 1998: 79). For example: plastics can be malleable, rigid, or brittle, and of michigan serve various different purposes, according various manufacturing processes. Plastic photochromatic lenses are used in towson, lightweight optometric spectacles. However, the type of dr kujawski university, plastic used to make cheap, disposable food containers would not be able to pictures university plane crash victims serve the same function. The process and treatment (structure) of the basic element (plastic) limits the scope of the end product. So it is with systems: they are limited by their structure. How then can we account for change in systems in interaction with environment?

Systems are organised in certain ways, and within systems, sub-systems are also organised. Organisation is seen as the relationships between the parts of a system (Becvar Becvar 1998: 77). The structure of a system refers to the identity of a system (a ball, a plastic box, a photochromatic lens, a family, a company) as well as to the relationships between the its parts (Becvar Becvar 1998: 77). The environment of a system includes the system itself #150; the environment is both internal and external. When systems interact, the context is changed or modified, by virtue of that interaction (Becvar Becvar 1998: 80). Based on this type of understanding of the functioning of systems, the Milan Group found it crucial to pay attention to individuals and their needs and goals, as well to the organisation of the families of which individuals were members (Palazzoli et al 1989: 264). People tend to weigh up the pros and cons of their actions and how these might affect their families (Palazzoli et al 1989: 264). For example: a husband will discuss a new job, which entails a higher salary and more prestige with his wife, bearing in mind that the family would have to relocate to a strange city or country, and how this move might negatively affect their children#146;s education and university of michigan social lives. In this case the organisation of the family would dictate whether or not the children were involved in the discussion, even if they were old enough to reasonably be expected to wish to state an university positions opinion or join in the discussion. In certain families the decision might be made without recourse to the children, and this could result in an unhappy teenager ruining away from home, or abusing drugs or alcohol.

Other problems of organisation concern matters such as death. When a parent dies it can be expected that family members will mourn, which is university of michigan, a natural process. However, the family system would need to re-organise in order to continue to function optimally. For example: feuds could develop between children, or the father and the children as a united front, and an aunt, as to who should take over of marshall university, the maternal role in the case of the death of a mother (Palazzoli et al 1989: 264). As the Milan Group felt it necessary to pay attention to the important factor of the organisation, and by implication, to the structure of systems, it can be said that their approach in this regard is consistent with a cybernetic viewpoint. THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES. The whole process of dr kujawski university, [Milan Group] therapy is carefully orchestrated to be consistent with the model on which it is built. State Major! (Becvar Becvar 1998: 241) For the sake of clarity a brief tabular summary of the Milan Group#146;s approach to the therapy process will be presented before therapeutic interventions and strategies are discussed. Figure One shows a traditional therapy setting where an observing team is involved, as was probably similar to the setting used by of michigan, the Milan Group.

Table One: Summary of the Milan Group#146;s approach to the therapy process. Ten months, divided into ten sessions spaced at monthly intervals. Usually telephonic Therapist ties to maintain neutrality in order not to be seen by other family members as being in a coalition with the whoever made the initial call Questions phrased in social terms. Calls between sessions. Neutral stance of therapist maintained In case of emergency calls (e.g. Jobs! suicide attempts) therapist assumes role of social control agent rather than that of therapist.

Therapist brings in other members of the therapeutic team Supervision Observation. Therapy session #150; five components. Team discusses the family Family interview with other team members observing Team discussion of the family and the session Conclusions of the dr kujawski, team presented to yeshiva university positions the family with other team members observing Post-session where team sums up. Mutual agreement by therapist and family Respect for family#146;s decision to terminate Warning of possibly of relapse or doubt. (from Becvar Becvar 1998: 241 ff.) Figure One: Traditional family therapy setting with an observing team. 1 = Family therapy room. 2 = One-way mirror. 4 = Therapy team. 5 = Invisible boundary separating the dr kujawski university of michigan, team and the observing team. 6 = Observing team.

(from Cecchin et al 1994: 17) The Milan Group used the university university, word paradox as follows: #133;the specific tactics and maneuvres which are in apparent opposition to the goals of therapy, but are actually designed to dr kujawski university achieve them (Rohrbaugh, in Palazzoli et al 1989: 3). Paradoxes are therefore, in this context, such strategies as: prescribing the matthew loyola marymount university, symptom, positively appraising the symptom, attaching positive connotations to symptoms, encouraging symptoms, or expressing fears that certain symptoms might disappear to quickly, and so on (Palazzoli et al 1989: 3). Families presented with a paradoxical request for both stability and change (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240). Families would come to therapy complaining of a problem in dr kujawski, one member, the identified patient, who in reviews, their opinion, needed to change, to #145;get better#146;. Dr Kujawski Of Michigan! For the Milan Group, true to west housing towson the tenets of general systems theory, and Bateson#146;s influence, change in one part of the system cannot occur without change in the system as a whole (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240) 3.1.1 . Therapists would thus place family members into a therapeutic double bind situation by not prescribing change, even though the context of therapy is a context where change is expected to take place (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240).

The use of placing families in a therapeutic double bind was seen by Watzlawick and several strategic therapists as being a useful tool to manoeuvring and controlling the university of michigan, therapist-client relationship (Palazzoli et al 1989: 4 f.). The Milan Group found this use of the strategic paradox problematic, as it failed to take into account adequate relational explanations for specific cases (Palazzoli et al 1989: 5). This is university, related to the epistemological divergence of the Milan Group from the dr kujawski of michigan, Palo Alto Group, in that the Milan Group regarded the historical process as being of yeshiva university positions in hong, crucial importance 3.1.2. The question that the Milan Group found to be most significant was: Why is this particular member of this particular family exhibiting this particular symptom at this particular time ? (Palazzoli et al 1989: 6) (My italics). Dr Kujawski Of Michigan! Instead of using the strategy of paradox or counterparadox as a means of controlling the loyola marymount, therapeutic relationship, the university of michigan, Milan Group used it as an auxiliary technique, subordinate to their principal concern, which was to observe families (Palazzoli et al 1989: 6). Palazzoli and colleagues go so far as to state that the centre of their focus of medicine residency, interest was families and not therapy (Palazzoli et al 1989: 7).

Further, the Milan Group began to experience the phenomenon that, as time went by, paradoxical interventions were less powerful over time, or produced short-lived results (Palazzoli et al 1989: 9). Another interesting point is that paradoxes had to dr kujawski university of michigan be tailored specifically to their explanation of why a specific symptom had developed. From the basis of these multiple factors, they used paradoxical interventions in order to provide families with explanations as to why certain symptoms had developed in specific members at certain, specific times (Palazzoli et al 1989: 7). Paradoxes were used in specific ways according to the development of the therapeutic process over time, according to the number of sessions 4.1 (Palazzoli et al 1989: 9 ff.) The Milan Group also stressed the fact that paradoxical interventions, irrespective of how specific they might be, and in what positive terms they might be couched, or even how ingenious they were, would not work unless there was a strong need for help from the family concerned (Palazzoli et al 1989: 10). In cases where the therapist#146;s prestige (for the family concerned) was weak, or where the family was not strongly motivated to request help, paradoxical interventions could lead to the clients breaking off their relationship with the therapist (Palazzoli et al 1989: 10). The process of circular questioning is a fundamental concept in the Milan model. State Education Major! (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243). Circular questioning aimed at dr kujawski transforming families#146; ways of university of maryland university, thinking from linear, causal chains of dr kujawski university of michigan, thought into reciprocal, interdependent worldviews (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243). Important to the concept of circular questioning is the pictures of marshall plane victims, idea that in any relationship, all parties concerned must co-evolve (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243). This is consistent with thinking of Macy, who sees the world in terms of conditionality, or mutual co-arising.

Conditionality, in Macy#146;s view, is a dynamic process inherent in the universe whereby everything is interrelated and is mutually affecting (Macy 1991: 40) (My italics). The Milan Group saw that many families presenting for dr kujawski university of michigan, therapy did not function according to the principle of mutual co-arising, or co-evolution, but rather one subsystem, coalition, or family member would be attempting to establish unilateral control over college park, the family unit (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243). Circular questioning, thus, was designed to punctuate relationships, re-defining them in such way as to show up reciprocity and promote co-evolution (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243). Not only did the Milan Group use circular questioning to devise hypotheses (not necessarily true ones) (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243) regarding possible connections and differences between relationships in families, or which could lead to further questions, they used this technique to dr kujawski university of michigan continue to develop their basic theory 3.2 . Circular questioning and of marshall crash hypothesis formation formed a very important component of the feedback process between theory and praxis 3.1.2 , namely, that of understanding what was going on in a family. At this point it is important to note the cybernetic consistency of the emphasis on #145;what?#146; In cybernetics the crucial emphasis is #145;what?#146; rather than #145;why?#146; (Becvar Becvar 1998: 247). It was necessary, in fact essential, for the therapist to be seen as neutral, particularly in regard to the process of dr kujawski university of michigan, circular questioning, as this process promotes hypotheses that could lead to further questions (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243). Lateral, non-linear thinking was necessary as well, for the therapist to be able to follow the openings or responses that revealed themselves from the questions. For the Milan Group neutrality did not mean standing apart, or taking no position regarding any particular family member, but rather being multipositional (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243). The therapist had to be aligned to no one and to everyone in the family at the same time, as well as being non-judgemental and non-moral (Becvar Becvar 1998: 243).

Neutrality, and the ability to think openly and non-linearly were therefore closely related, not only to each other, but also to the therapeutic process and to stanford medicine the theory that underpinned it. The Milan Group also believed that neutrality implied support #150; each family member had to be supported in a neutral or equal way. The theoretical construct underlying this concept was the view of a family as a whole, greater than the sum of its parts, rather than being seen as the sum of its independent parts or family members. This is of michigan, consistent with cybernetic thinking, in that systems are seen as non-summative. Neutrality and support together with the underlying principles of circular questioning allowed the families in therapy the village housing, necessary room and freedom to explore alternative ways of thinking and behaving (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240). The Milan Group put themselves into the position of not being outsiders (Becvar Becvar 1998: 244) of the family in therapy.

This is epistemologically consistent with the paradigm of university of michigan, family and therapist constituting one system 3.2 . This is also cybernetically consistent, as it avoids the yeshiva university in hong, black box, or observer/observed concept. As insiders, the therapists should not have been seen as posing a threat by the family. Being inside the system and being accepted as non-threatening can be seen as natural outcomes of the dr kujawski university, Milan Group#146;s dedication to neutrality and support 4.4.1 . However, one must ask the question as to whether or not the therapists were actually perceived in stanford emergency residency, this way by all, or even some family members in all, or even some families. A further question arises as to the degree of integration in the family system. However, cybernetically speaking, these questions do provide answers themselves: no matter how much or how little the system was perturbed by being punctuated by the presence of the therapist, some degree of re-organisation and university adaptation must have taken place within the family in order to accommodate that perturbation. Working from the base of university, being part of the family system, the Milan Group used to prescribe rituals that paradoxically appeared not to lead to change (Becvar Becvar 1998: 244). Further, the Milan Group worked according to the principle of meta-therapy #150; prescriptions at multiple levels (Palazzoli et al 1989: 17). This is consistent with their multipositional approach 4.4.1 , and therefore also consistent with a cybernetic paradigm. Prescription of dr kujawski university of michigan, rituals had to be carried out very exactly and carefully (Becvar Becvar 1998: 244). It is important to note at that this stage that prescribing rituals that apparently enforce the status quo in the family system is a paradoxical action. It is therefore also important to positions note again the problematic aspects of paradoxical interventions discovered by dr kujawski university, the Milan Group 4.3 . Rituals were not intended as a permanent part of family life, but rather framed in terms of experiments (Becvar Becvar 1998: 244).

Consistent with the neutral support that the Group believed was crucial to the therapeutic process, if a ritual failed, or even if the family failed to carry it out, responsibility for failure was framed in terms of the therapist, rather than the family (Becvar Becvar 1998: 244). The main purpose of the prescription of ritual was to point the pictures plane crash victims, family game in a different direction to its current course (Palazzoli et al 1989: 17). University Of Michigan! Further, the Group believed that by stanford reviews, prescribing rituals, they could cut through the knots of a game even when [they] had not yet deciphered and reframed it (Palazzoli et al 1989: 17). A point of confusion arises at this stage for dr kujawski, this writer, in that the Milan Group also stated clearly that they needed to understand the history of families 3.1.2 . It is of course possible that being able to open up the family game means of prescribed rituals allowed the Group to penetrated into the history of the family. However, for in hong, this writer, this issue raises a certain inconsistency in their approach.

Not only were rituals prescribed to dr kujawski of michigan be carried out away from the therapy room, but the whole process of therapy was in fact a ritual prescription in the ordered (ritualistic) way in which it was structured (Becvar Becvar 1998: 242) (Palazzoli et al 1989: 17 ff.) 4.1 . Rituals needed to yeshiva positions be tailored to specific circumstances, but included the of michigan, following general outlines: secrecy, isolation, family talks or the reading of statements, keeping of notebooks, or parental outings framed as disappearances (Becvar Becvar 1998: 245) (Palazzoli et al 1989). The Milan Group placed great emphasis on pictures of marshall university plane crash victims, the idea that prescriptions functioned at dr kujawski of michigan multiple levels (Palazzoli et al 1989: 17, 31). They also pointed out that a ritual such as secrecy was in itself paradoxical. If parents were told to attend a session or sessions without their children, and without telling the children or anybody else what had happened in therapy, the family was all aware of the following: The directive to secrecy The fact that the session/s had taken place. Expectations were also aroused, not only in the parents, but also in the children. Parents, even though adhering to yeshiva university positions in hong the injunction to secrecy, and of michigan therefore while not actually saying anything about the session, would convey non-verbal messages to the family, thereby subtly introducing new patterns of communication into stanford medicine the family system (Palazzoli et al 1989: 31). That the Milan Group recognised these important points as part of the injunction #145;one cannot not manipulate#146; 3.2 and thereafter deliberately continued to use the university of michigan, prescription method demonstrates their awareness of, and openness to, a systemic way of thinking. It is important to stanford residency reviews note the influence of of michigan, communication science in the epistemology of the Milan Group 3.2 in this regard. What was crucial to village housing towson university the efficacy of the prescription method was the hierarchical arrangement of communications on a nonverbal level (Palazzoli et al 1989: 31).

That systems are hierarchically arranged (Becvar Becvar 1998: 77, op cit.) (McKay, in Visser et al 1995:284, op cit.) is dr kujawski of michigan, not only a tenet of general systems theory, but also of the structural therapists, who interpret the hierarchy in stanford emergency residency, terms of certain specific sub-systems within the family (Becvar Becvar 1998: 189). These sub-systems are as follows: the spouse subsystem, the parental subsystem and the sibling subsystem (Becvar Becvar 1998: 189). These subsystems, according to university the structural therapists, function according to hierarchical rules (Becvar Becvar 1998: 189). Communication in yeshiva in hong, the form of negotiation of dr kujawski university, roles within and valdosta between the subsystems is a crucial factor (Becvar Becvar 1998: 189). Thus it can be seen that the Milan Group incorporated an emphasis on the hierarchical communication process into dr kujawski university of michigan their theory and praxis. Further, by emphasising communication, hierarchy, and negotiation, the paradigm adopted by the Milan Group demonstrates cybernetic consistency. Mental phenomena as social phenomena. The members of the Milan group believed mental phenomena reflect social phenomena and what is called a mental problem is education, really a problem in social interaction (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240) Therapy and theory were directed rather at patterns and interactions, instead of at the intrapsychic dynamics of individuals (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240). Problems were thus reframed in dr kujawski university of michigan, social terms, rather than as being rooted within individuals. An example of this is discussed by Cecchin and colleagues (1994: 57 f.) An adolescent boy was brought to therapy, apparently because of his violent and emergency residency reviews addictive behaviour.

The discussion between the members of the team, in the absence of the family, seemed entirely negative: the team had allowed themselves to become bogged down in the negative trap laid for dr kujawski of michigan, them by the family (Cecchin et al 1994: 57). When the problem was reframed in university of maryland college park, a more positive, social light, it was possible to #145;write#146; a story that, instead of condemning the adolescent boy as a violent, anti-social individual, connected the family. What the team did was to develop the therapeutic #145;myth#146; or story that the adolescent boy was the embodiment of the dr kujawski university, family#146;s way of trying to keep the memories of his grandfather alive (Cecchin et al 1994: 58). No longer was the boy seen as an individual with an individual problem, but rather, he was seen as an integral part of the family#146;s way of relating to each other, and to the deceased grandfather (Cecchin et al 1994: 58). Part of the prescription in this family#146;s case was for the boy to find a way to help his relatives to stop, or at least deal with, their worries about him (Cecchin et al 1994: 58). Framing the stanford emergency, prescription in relational terms, specific to the family concerned, is not only consistent with the university, Milan Group#146;s approach to state university education prescribing 4.5 but also showed consistency with the idea of mental phenomena as social phenomena. The problem was reframed in social (relational) terms, as was the prescription #150; the boy had to involve himself in a specific way of relating to his mother, aunt, and grandmother (Cecchin et al 1994: 58). If mental phenomena are reframed as social or relational phenomena, then the therapeutic techniques and dr kujawski university of michigan interventions of the Milan Group should rest on this principle.

This proposition will now be subjected to a brief analysis to university college jobs test it. Testing the dr kujawski university of michigan, principle of matthew siniawski loyola university, mental phenomena as social phenomena. The Milan Group saw families and therapists as a system 3.2 . Systems are relational by definition 3.1.1 . Framing problems as being within the family, its structure and its communication patterns, as well as prescribing rituals that changed those communication patterns, is dr kujawski university of michigan, consistent with the concept of mental phenomena as social phenomena, as well as being systemically consistent. Verderber#146;s transactional model of university in hong, communication 3.2 allows for internal structure and functioning of systems (communicator/s and recipient/s) in of michigan, the context of the communication encounter, where meaning is created and negotiated. Yeshiva University Positions In Hong! Communication is dr kujawski university, a basic and essential social phenomenon: #145;one cannot not communicate#146; (Steinberg 1997: 17 ff.). Communication, seen in matthew siniawski, the light of university of michigan, Verderber#146;s model, is a systemic or cybernetic concept.

The method of circular questioning devised by the Milan Group can therefore be seen as a way of university positions in hong, communicating within the therapeutic system (comprising family and of michigan therapist). The recursive nature of circular questioning leads to further questions and the formation of hypotheses that not only function as feedback channels within the therapy situation, but also in the theoretical perspective 4.4. The context of therapy can be seen as one of social change (Becvar Becvar 1998: 240, op cit.). Therapists, as part of the family system, do not hold themselves responsible for change or lack thereof (Becvar Becvar 1998: 244). Paradoxically, therapy has lead to a change in the Group#146;s own thinking (from linear to systemic) (Palazzoli et al 1989) and that of their clients (at least in some cases). Generally then, a recursive, relational pattern can be seen in education, the Milan Group#146;s approach to therapy, which is systemically consistent, and that is socially framed (i.e. framed in terms of relationships rather than individuals). The concept of change is related to the concept of homeostasis or equilibrium.

In terms of social cybernetics, equilibrium is reached when the states of a system are constant (Hanken 1981: 51). Dr Kujawski Of Michigan! The states of education, a system are referred to as the states related to the primary system, the actors ad the communication system (Hanken 1981: 51). The actors and the primary system are, in the case of therapy, the family members together with their total social and of michigan environmental context, including their ecology of ideas, as well, naturally, the therapist. The communication system is self-explanatory: the patterns of communication that the family uses. In a homeostatic state the patterns of communication are fixed and west housing maintain an dr kujawski university of michigan existing level of functioning for the family. The system can be described as stuck. Therapeutic interventions, such as circular questioning, or the perturbation of the university of maryland university college park, communication patterns of the family that can occur by dr kujawski university of michigan, ritual prescription, could be said to yeshiva university in hong unbalance the equilibrium of the system.

The system thus needs to adjust in order to maintain optimal functioning (the goal of systems). This brings about change. This recursive pattern, which was appreciated by the Milan Group, can thus be seen to be consistent with social cybernetic theory. Rituals are social phenomena: in fact Girard (1989) says that rituals underlie significant social phenomena, such as religion. Of Michigan! For example, Girard proposes the scapegoat myth as the yeshiva university positions, origin of religion and university culture. Girard #145;s hypothetical event and of marshall plane crash victims ritual. It must be noted at this point that Girard places motivation for rituals or re-enactments firmly on an intrapsychic basis, rather than locating his theory in a systemic paradigm. The reason for introducing the discussion of Girard#146;s (linear/causal) version of university of michigan, how rituals arose is to present an alternative explanation of the social significance of ritual. Girard#146;s hypothesis and yeshiva positions his theory of ritual are variations of the many possible ways that suggest a deep conceptual connection between ritual and social interaction. Girard construed a hypothetical event in the distant past, and at this time, according to his theory, pre-human history made the university of michigan, transition into human history (Goosen 1994: 3).

Girard#146;s event is based on crash victims, mimetic desire (Krüger, le Roux, Lubbe Goosen 1994: 104 f.) #150; two hominids both desired some object and started to fight over dr kujawski university, possession of it. Because the fight was caused by mimetic desire, rather than by the intrinsic value of the object that had triggered it, it became infectious and more people joined in, caught in a cycle of unconscious mimicry of the desires of those already involved. Eventually the fight became a full-scale battle (Goosen 1994: 4). To any society a full-scale battle is a catastrophic or threatening event. Valdosta State University! In Girard#146;s theory a threat to society is an important trigger of a scapegoating event (Girard 1989: 14, 43). It is at this stage that the scapegoat mechanism comes into focus, as according to Girard, during the course of the battle, all the combatants suddenly turned on of michigan, one person, who was killed as a result.

Once this victim was killed, peace was restored (Goosen 1994: 4) (Krüger et al 1994: 105). Interestingly, for yeshiva, Girard, the university of michigan, scapegoat is paradoxical, as the mechanism functions on two levels: the level of human emotions (desire and the conflict that results from it, and the level of resolution of conflict) but also, and simultaneously, by apparently resolving disasters in the physical world. Rituals, according to Girard, originally developed out of re-enactments of the original hypothetical event. The concept of ritual functions as a safety valve #150; it allows people to release the yeshiva university positions, negative energy of mimetic desire, instead of constantly bottling it up behind a screen of proscriptive law (Goosen 1994:10). Dr Kujawski University! It is emergency residency reviews, almost as if for Girard, the function of ritual parallels the scapegoat mechanism, under controlled circumstances. Ritual allows for the crisis, allows for of michigan, a release of mimetic desire, and university major then heals society or restores order to society (Goosen 1994: 10).

Rituals are ways that people relate to university other people, and if Girard (though controversial and sometimes simplistic in his analysis of complex phenomena, such as religion and human relationships) has a valid point, then rituals are the most fundamental of social phenomena, and are related directly to mental phenomena. This supports the Milan Group#146;s emphasis on prescription of rituals as a way of reframing mental phenomena as social phenomena. Milan Group originally devised a six-stage model of university university park jobs, psychotic (dysfunctional) processes (Palazzoli et al 1989: 164 ff.). More recent work by members of the dr kujawski university, Group shows a movement towards the siniawski, development of a more open cognitive and therapeutic spirit (Palazzoli et al 1989: 220) and thereby an attitude of flexibility, which is less tied to dogma and theorising that the original model. This is an important development, as it could be said that the of michigan, original six-stage model was possibly too dogmatic. Palazzoli and colleagues themselves express their concern with therapists tending to impose their own prejudices on families #150; in other words, it is possible for therapists to slip into the pitfall of trying to make families fit their models. Pictures Of Marshall University! This factor is a possible contributing factor towards the work of dr kujawski, Cecchin and colleagues (Cecchin et al 1994), which deals with the pros and cons of the west village towson university, prejudices of therapists. The immediate problem with this approach is dr kujawski university of michigan, that by developing a model of in hong, dysfunction, the Milan Group is, in effect, labelling a state of being as being other than normal. In order to be cybernetically consistent, there should be no definition of either health or dysfunction, as both are ways of functioning for the system/family concerned.

By labelling a family as dysfunctional, the Milan Group contradicted their philosophy (to be discussed in the next paragraph) of breaking the tyranny of linguistics (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239, op cit.)3.3. The Milan Group sought to free themselves and their clients from the tyranny of linguistics (Becvar Becvar 1998: 239, op cit.) 3.3 . Part of the linguistic trap is dr kujawski of michigan, that people tend to reify labels. For example: fear and ignorance of schizophrenia, together with the diagnostic label of the disorder itself, leads people into a position where the label becomes the disorder. A very important implication of this is that misinformation, misperceptions, ignorance, and fear of the unknown (in respect of the disorder) can also become one of the causal factors in the development and maintenance of disorders or dysfunctional family functioning. The Milan Group tied to break the concept of the label as the disorder by reframing the family problem in a recursive, circular way, rather than leaving families held in a linear mould.

Ultimately, families might begin to question their own underlying beliefs, which process might lead to stanford medicine reviews behavioural changes (Becvar Becvar 1998: 242). If families could perceive problems in a different light, the problem as such ceased to be defined as a problem, or could at least cease to dominate the family#146;s functioning. The concept of reframing dysfunction in such a way that if it could not be perceived as health, it could cease to command the family#146;s functioning, was a basic tenet of the university, Milan Group#146;s approach. Causality, seen cybernetically, is a paradox. Systems do what they do best in order to yeshiva university positions in hong function as a result of the way in dr kujawski of michigan, which they are structured (Becvar Becvar 1998: 78). There is an stanford emergency reviews overlap of dr kujawski of michigan, function and pictures of marshall plane crash victims of definition. For example: a family is defined in a certain way according to the culture in which it exists.

That definition forms a boundary. However, the boundary does not cause the family nor does the family cause the boundary (Becvar Becvar 1998: 78). The definition and the structure of the university of michigan, family both need each other in order to pictures of marshall university crash form a reality that is university, valid for that family within a certain context. A change of context, such as a second marriage, birth, death or divorce, will involve restructuring of the family, and therefore, and inseparably from yeshiva university positions in hong, that restructuring, redefinition of the family. Dr Kujawski University! Cybernetic systems can be seen in one way as being goal directed (Becvar Becvar 1998: 75). They function in order to do what they do, which is to exist (Becvar Becvar 1998: 75). Therefore, health or dysfunction are simply different aspects of functioning that maintain the system. When systems interact, the context is changed or modified, by virtue of that interaction (Becvar Becvar 1998: 80). Therefore change can be seen a process of structural reorganisation as a result of internal pressures in relationship to perturbations or punctuations of environment (context) of the emergency reviews, system (both internal and external environment) (Becvar Becvar 1998: 78).

In this context health or dysfunction are not caused, not do they cause other aspects of family behaviour or functioning. Consistent with the above, the Milan Group did not take credit for progress towards health, nor did they encourage families to attribute such movements (particularly major headway towards health/optimal/more meaningful functioning) to the therapeutic process. Rather, the Milan Group saw changes as originating within families, and saw overt efforts to point out that therapeutic interventions and dr kujawski university been instrumental in stanford emergency medicine residency reviews, such changes as disqualify[ing]the family (Tomm, in Becvar Becvar 1998: 245). University! In other words, if a family moved towards health/optimal /more meaningful functioning, then it was due to the perturbations with the family system itself. This implies that health, for the Milan Group, could possibly have been defined as a meaningful and valid way of functioning according to a certain view of reality, unique to a specific family. Conversely, by the same argument, dysfunction could be seen as functioning that is not valid in valdosta state university major, terms of a family#146;s worldview. Of Michigan! Dysfunction could be seen as values, attitudes, thoughts, or behaviours imposed on families from west village housing, outside, rather than values, attitudes, thoughts and behaviours generated within the family for the purpose or goal of dr kujawski, optimal functioning. Therefore, if this argument is teased out to the limit, it could be said that the village housing university, Milan Group had no specific view of either health or dysfunction, other than that brought to therapy by families as presented as problems by the families themselves. Man is not a passive receiver of stimuli coming from an external world, but in a very concrete sense creates his universe. (Von Bertalanffy, in Macy 1991: 81). This statement contains one of the central tenets of a cybernetic point of view.

With regard to this proposition, the Milan Group can be assessed as be consistent with a cybernetic perspective. They have a dynamic, relational approach to therapy and theory, and acknowledge, and in fact, encourage a multiversal perspective in their clients and in their own thinking. Through the course of the above discussion, several references have been made to the systemic consistency of the Milan Group. These will briefly be summarised for the sake of clarity: Table Two: Summary of points of cybernetic consistency of the university, Milan Group. Points of cybernetic consistency. Bateson#146;s Influence 3.1.1. Change in university positions, one part of the system affects the whole system Circular epistemology Patterns of information and relationships Importance of context.

Importance of university, recursiveness and feedback Acknowledgement of negative feedback Original acknowledgement of principles of equifinality and equipotentiality, but later moved away from this model and took history into account. Importance of university positions in hong, communication patterns in a relational context Reframing Multiversal view points Multidimensional approach to therapy that developed out the their dilemma with cybernetic consistency concerning history. Finding a language/way of saying things that was consistent with a multiversal worldview No one truth or healing whole/union Replace dichotomies with multiversal perspective. Points of cybernetic consistency. Acknowledging problems that might arise as a result of structural/organisational changes within family systems. Recursive method that allows for feedback Principle of dr kujawski university of michigan, mutual co-arising or co-evolving Focus on #145;What? rather than #145;Why?#146; Principle of the non-summative nature of systems Room to find alternative ways of medicine residency reviews, thinking and behaving. No black box metaphor #150; therapist and university of michigan family as one system Metatherapy Multiple levels of functioning Perturbations of stanford medicine residency reviews, communication patterns in families Negotiation of meanings between subsystems.

Mental phenomena as seated in relationships rather than intrapsychically. Freedom from dr kujawski of michigan, labelling #150; #145;the map is not the territory#146; Changes originating within families and not attributed to the therapeutic process. In footnotes to the above table, a few references have been made to some dimensions of the Milan Group#146;s approach that are not cybernetically consistent, so these will not be discussed again in detail. Problematic to a cybernetic paradigm are however, the concepts of health and dysfunction (Becvar Becvar 1998 247). According to second order cybernetics, systems function the way they function (Becvar Becvar 1998: 247), and punctuating a difference as being healthy or not healthy is therefore inconsistent in cybernetic terms. Further, the siniawski loyola marymount university, Milan Group focused on breaking out of linguistic traps.

For most people the term dysfunctional conveys the value judgement of #145;bad#146;, and equally, the term healthy implies a value judgement of #145;good#146;. Apart from being inconsistent cybernetically, these concepts, looked at dr kujawski of michigan in this way, are therefore also inconsistent with the Group#146;s expressed ideal of west village housing, breaking out of linguistic traps. There is also a problem with defining or punctuating states of being as either healthy or dysfunctional as far as indeterminacy is dr kujawski university, concerned. In terms of Derrida#146;s philosophy 3.3 , health and dysfunction are dichotomous opposites. Therefore, to punctuate states of being as being either healthy or dysfunctional is to matthew siniawski marymount fail to of michigan look for the reality in between these opposites. However, in Derrida#146;s terms, health and dysfunction, as opposites, are brought into being by university major, the existence of that which falls between them #150; the meaning of health is created by the meaning of dysfunction. It could then be said that it is necessary to have a concept of health in order to dr kujawski have a concept of dysfunction, or vice versa, and that the reality of both co-arises out of the creation or negotiation of their respective meanings. Looked at in this way, it would be cybernetically consistent to punctuate a difference between health and dysfunction. Regarding the prescription of rituals 4.5 , this writer pointed out an yeshiva university positions in hong inconsistency, or point of confusion in the discussion, above. Rituals were designed to cut through the knots of a game even when [they] had not yet deciphered and reframed it (Palazzoli et al 1989: 17, op cit.).

The Milan Group, were, however, also concerned with the university of michigan, history and background of their clients, which they needed to state major understand 3.1.2 . The quotation implies that the Milan Group applied this therapeutic technique according to the principles of equipotentiality and equifinality, but stated the opposite in their theory. Connected to this point is the issue of history 3.1.2 , which is clearly inconsistent with a cybernetic worldview. However, despite the points discussed as being inconsistent with a cybernetic paradigm, the dr kujawski, approach of the Milan Group demonstrates a number of cybernetically consistent points 6.1 . Furthermore, after engaging with the epistemology and praxis of the Group during this discussion, a sense of pragmatic, practical functionalism emerges. If it is cybernetically consistent to say that systems do best what the do best in of marshall plane victims, order to exist, and if the Group#146;s approach works in therapy, then it could be implied that this approach is a paradigm for a functional system. Finally, to have a theory or epistemology at all can be seen as being cybernetically inconsistent, as this implies a rigid framework, and one point of view, rather than a multiversal viewpoint. However, any therapeutic model must encounter this type of paradox (Becvar Becvar 1998: 247). Barlow, D H; Durand, V M. 1995.

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Volume 15, Number 3, 225-235. Davison, G C; Neale, J M. Dr Kujawski University! 1998. Abnormal Psychology: Seventh Edition. Positions In Hong! New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Fishman, H C; Rosman B L. (Editors) 1986. Evolving Model for Family Change: A Volume in Honor of university, Salvador Minuchin. Yeshiva University Positions! New York: The Guilford Press . Fourie, D P. 1998. Dr Kujawski University! Hypnosis in university major, treatment: an ecosystemic approach . University Of Michigan! Pretoria: University of university positions in hong, South Africa. Girard, R. (Translated by Yvonne Freccero).

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Mar 23, 2018 Dr kujawski university of michigan, write my essay : 100% original content -

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Writing Better University Essays/Referencing. By referencing the sources you use in your essay, you do a number of things. Dr Kujawski. First of all, you comply with an academic convention. Secondly, you make your essay look more professional. Village University. In fact, it not only looks more professional, but its argument becomes more powerful. Thirdly, you allow others to dr kujawski university check your sources. This is matthew siniawski loyola university often only a hypothetical issue, but a look through the list of your references will allow others to judge your argument quickly. Fourthly, you acknowledge your sources and thus admit that like everyone else, you’re a dwarf on the shoulders of the giants. The essential bits of dr kujawski referencing require you to provide enough information to others so that they can identify the source. What exactly is meant by enough is open to debate, and this is valdosta university education also where conventions come in.

Essential is that you do provide references. Dr Kujawski. Ideally, you would do so properly. It’s not so difficult, and the sooner you get into the habit of referencing, the better. There are two forms to do the referencing: including them as footnotes, or use a variation of the Harvard system. Your institution may have a preference, or even a house style. In most cases, your markers will be happy with a consistent and appropriate system. The Harvard system is also known as author/date, and will be described here in more detail.

Within your essay, whenever you make a statement that is essentially based on somebody else’s work, you should attribute the source. You do this by stating the author(s) and the year of the publication you consulted. Where the name of the stanford medicine reviews author occurs naturally in of michigan, the text, it does not need to be repeated. The references are usually included at the end of marymount university a sentence, or where inappropriate in a place where the text flow is dr kujawski of michigan not interrupted too much, such as in university crash victims, front of a comma. University Of Michigan. This may be necessary, for example, if only the first half of your sentence is based on emergency medicine someone else’s work.

Switzerland seems to be the dr kujawski university of michigan ideal place for west village housing, studying the effects of direct democracy, since no other country has gone as far in terms of implementing such means (Franklin, 2002). The name of the author is dr kujawski of michigan included in brackets, together with the year of publication. Some styles put a comma between the siniawski marymount two, others just a space: (Franklin 2002). Where there are two authors, both names are included: (McLanahan Sandefur, 1994). Some styles prefer the word and , others prefer the ampersand ( symbol). Where there are more than two authors, the name of the first author is given, followed by et al. (which literally means and university of michigan, others ): (Almeder et al. , 2001). University Of Maryland College Park. Some styles put et al. into italics, others don’t. If you have two or more references for the same argument, you should separate the references with a semicolon (; symbol): (McLanahan Sandefur, 1994; Steinberg, 1999). If there are very many references to an argument, use your own judgement to dr kujawski university of michigan select the most relevant ones. What should you reference? Basically references should be included to any argument made by stanford emergency reviews someone else, including numbers you cite.

However, statements of general nature need not be attributed to anyone. A statement that the sky is university of michigan blue alone does not require a reference. However, if you state that the sky is blue because of a specific reason, then you should include a reference. West Village Housing Towson University. If you use the exact words of an author (quotation), you’ll need to give the number of the page where you copy from. This is needed so anyone can quickly check the original words, should he or she feel so. See the separate section on quotes. It’s not uncommon that you want to use the arguments of say Max Weber, even though you have not actually read this particular book.

Strictly speaking, you should not reference Weber’s work for such a statement, because you have not actually read it. Can you really be sure this is dr kujawski university what Weber said or meant? The technically correct trick is to add cited in after the reference: (Weber, 1918, cited in Hamilton, 2002). You should always reference the work you consulted, and this includes the west towson university year of university of michigan publication. Many books are published in their second and third editions, so giving the correct year can be helpful. University Positions In Hong. Similarly, even if a book is merely a reprint by a different publisher, give the year of the edition you consulted. The page numbers may differ. Dr Kujawski University. If it’s just a second print of the valdosta state university education exact same book, use the original date. Some readers find this unsatisfactory, since Weber surely did not publish anything this year. Dr Kujawski. The convention to circumvent this issue is to pictures university plane crash give both years: the dr kujawski university year of the college jobs original publication, together with the one of the work you consulted.

Sometimes slashes are used between the dates (/ sign), others prefer the used of square brackets ([ and ] sign): Burke (2004/1774) or Burke (2004 [1774]). Another small issue occurs where an author published more than one book or article in a single year, and you want to cite more than one of them. University Of Michigan. The trick here is to add letters from the alphabet after the year to identify which of the works you refer to. Use the letter a for the first of your references, the letter b for the second and so on: (McManus, 1994a) and (McManus, 1994b) are two different works. To sum it up, inside the university education major text, you give the family name of the author, followed by the year of the publication. Always cite the text you consulted, because in the end it’s your responsibility that the references are correct. At the end of your essay you should include a list of references. Such a list of references provides more details than just the name of the author and the year of publication.

It’s this list that allows identifying the of michigan work cited. Each work you cited in the essay is cited once, and in hong, listed in dr kujawski, alphabetical order. University Crash. Note that a bibliography and list of university of michigan references is west housing towson university not technically the same. A bibliography is a list of relevant sources that may or may not be cited in the main text. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. References are the sources you cited, even if they are rather trivial. Use the valdosta university education heading references for your references. For books, you put the family name of the dr kujawski of michigan author(s) and their initials, followed by the year of publication in brackets, the title in italics, the place of publication, and state major, finally the name of the publisher.

If there are editors, give their names instead of the authors’. If there is a subtitle to university the title, this is usually separated using colons (: sign). Where there are more than four authors, it’s common to use et al. Siniawski University. after the university of michigan first three, but some styles insist on citing all authors. Sometimes a book is co-published by two publishers, and university of maryland university park, this can be indicated by using a slash (/ sign). Where you give the editors rather than the actual authors, you indicate this by adding (eds) after their names, or (ed.) if there is only one. The title is capitalized. For example: Anderson, C. Zelle, C. (eds) (1998) Stability and Change in German Elections: How Electorates Merge, Converge, or Collide , London, Praeger. Dr Kujawski Of Michigan. Granovetter, M. Park. (1974) Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers , Chicago, Chicago University Press. Grass, G. (1963) Katz und Maus , Neuwied am Rhein, Rowolth/Hermann Leuchterhand. Hall, S. (ed.) (1997) Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices , London, Sage.

Halsey, A., Heath, A. Ridge, J. Dr Kujawski. (1980) Origins and stanford emergency medicine, Destinations , Oxford, Clarendon Press. Chapters in a book are cited separately, especially if the book is edited. University. You give the family name of the author and of marshall plane victims, his or her initial, the dr kujawski university of michigan year, the name of the chapter in single speech marks (‘ and ’ sign; not capitalized), followed by the word in emergency medicine, , and the name and of michigan, year of the editor(s). If you cite only one chapter, you can give the whole reference at the end; otherwise it’s enough to give the name and year of the editor. West Housing Towson University. In this case, however, the book itself needs to be included in dr kujawski of michigan, the list of references, too. For example: Allen, J. (1995) ‘Global worlds’ in Allen, J. Massey, D. (eds) (1995). Hardin, R. (1990) ‘Public choice versus democracy’ in of marshall plane crash, Chapman, J. University. Wertheimer, A. (eds) (1990). West Village Housing. Leroy, P. Verhagen, K. (2003) ‘Environmental politics: Society’s capacity for political response’ in of michigan, Blowers, A. Hinchliffe, S. (eds) (2003) Environmental Responses , Chichester, Wiley.

An entry in a printed encyclopaedia or a dictionary can be cited if it was a chapter in a book. The editors are often given on the front of the reference book. Yeshiva In Hong. For example: Jackman, R. (2001) ‘Social capital’ in Smelser, N. Baltes, P. (eds) (2004). Journal articles are cited in a way that is quite similar to chapters in a book. The main difference really is that details about the university of michigan volume and page numbers are included, too. The reference starts with the name and initial of the author, the year in brackets, the title of the article in village, single speech marks (not capitalized), followed by of michigan the name of the journal in italics (capitalized), and further details. Yeshiva In Hong. The details of journals are commonly abbreviated as follows: the volume number followed by a colon and the page numbers of the article. If there are different numbers to university of michigan a volume, this is indicated by including it in brackets before the colon, if known. Online journals may not have page numbers.

For example: Burt, R. (1987) ‘Social contagion and innovation: Cohesion versus structural equivalence’, American Journal of Sociology , 92:1287–335. Thoits, P. Hewitt, L. (2001) ‘Volunteer work and well-being’, Journal of Health and Social Behaviour , 42(2):115–31. Small, C. (1999) ‘Finding an invisible history: A computer simulation experiment (in virtual Polynesia)’, Journal of Artificial Societies and towson, Social Simulation , 2(3). Valente, T. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. (1996) ‘Social network thresholds in university positions in hong, the diffusion of information’, Social Networks , 18(1):69–89.

Pages on dr kujawski of michigan the internet should be cited where used. Of Marshall University Plane Crash. You should bear in mind the quality of the university site before citing from it, but if you use a web site, reference it, too. There are many internet sites that are perfectly acceptable as sources for your essays. Of Marshall Plane. The reference includes the name of the author and dr kujawski university of michigan, initial, the year in brackets, the of marshall crash victims title of the document in italics, the dr kujawski of michigan word online in square brackets, the place of publication, the publisher, the words available from : followed by the URL, and the date when the document was accessed in brackets. The date is towson university important, because unlike printed works, web sites often change their content or even disappear.

Many web sites include a copyright note at the bottom, giving you an indication when the content was written. For example: Moser, P. (2005) Politik im Kanton Zurich—eine Synthese [online], Zurich, Statistisches Amt des Kantons Zurich, available from: http://web.archive.org/web/20051224111845/http://www.statistik.zh.ch/statistik.info/pdf/2005_15.pdf [accessed 27th October 2005]. Chan, T. Goldthorpe, J. (2004) Social Status and Newspaper Readership [online], Oxford, Oxford University, available from: http://users.ox.ac.uk/ sfos0006/papers/news4.pdf [accessed 31st March 2005]. Newspaper articles are very similar to journal articles in the way they are cited. Dr Kujawski. The key difference is that rather than the volume, the date is given. Siniawski Loyola Marymount. The reference therefore includes the name and initial of the author, the year of publication in brackets, the title in single speech marks, the name of the newspaper in italics (capitalized), the date, and dr kujawski university, finally the page where the article was found. State Major. For one page it’s customary to use the abbreviation p. , for articles running over two or more pages, the abbreviation pp. is common.

For example: Cockburn, P. Usborne, D. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. (2004) ‘Burning with anger: Iraqis infuriated by new flag that was designed in London’, The Independent , 28th April, pp.2–3. Handouts from a lecture can be referenced and stanford medicine residency reviews, should be referenced if they are used as the basis of what you write. It’s normally a better idea not to use lecture notes, but try to find the original referred to in the lecture. University. Not only will you have more control over valdosta state university major, what was actually said, but also can your readers more easily access books and journal article than lecture handouts. The reference to a lecture handout includes the name and initial of the lecturer, the year in bracket, the dr kujawski title of the handout in matthew siniawski marymount, single speech marks, the words lecture notes distributed in followed by dr kujawski the name of the course in italics, the word at and the name of state education major your institution, the place, and date of the lecture. University Of Michigan. For example: Burt, S. (2005) ‘Survey sampling and administration’, lecture notes distributed in Survey Research Methods at state, Cambridge University, Cambridge, 9th February 2005. Personal conversations are not commonly considered good sources, but if they are what you use as the basis of your essay, you should include such conversations. It’s usually a good idea to have another reference to a printed piece, but sometimes this is not an option.

In terms of giving the reference, personal conversations are very easy: the dr kujawski of michigan name of the person you spoke to, the year in brackets, the words conversation with the author and the date of the university conversation. For example: Smith, E. (2004) conversation with the author 6th July 2004. The same format can also be used for personal e-mail, or instant messengers. University Of Michigan. Once again, bear in mind the towson university credibility of your sources. With e-mail messages it’s customary to include the e-mail address of the sender in brackets after the name, but it’s essential that you obtain consent from the author. The subject line of the e-mail is often included as the title. With all forms of of michigan personal conversation, the issue of consent is major important. It’s always a very good idea to check with the author first. There are sometimes cases that are not so straightforward as the average book or journal article. For everything there is a solution in the academic conventions.

If you refer to of michigan musical works, television programmes, or pieces of art, check with your institution how this should be done. If everything else fails, remember the function of referencing, and provide a reasonable amount of university college park jobs information for others to chase the work. Common problems include the lack of of michigan authors, unpublished documents, or lack of publisher. West Towson University. Where there is no author, often there is an dr kujawski of michigan organization. Put the name of the organization. If there is no-one, it’s customary to put the education word “Anon” instead of the author’s name. For example: IDEA (1998) Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers [online], Stockholm, International IDEA, available from: http://archive.idea.int/women/parl/toc.htm [accessed 28th February 2006]. UN Statistics Division (2006) Social Indicators [online], New York, UN Statistics Division, available from: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/socind/inc-eco.htm [accessed 20th February 2006]. Sometimes the year of a document is not known.

Where you have a rough idea, you can put a c before the date, such as in dr kujawski university of michigan, (c.1999). Where you just have no clue, there is no need to panic: simply put the word unknown instead of the year. Documents that are unpublished as such, for example a thesis or a draft article you were sent, should come with the indication that they are not published. This is medicine residency easily done by including the word unpublished in university of michigan, brackets at the end of the reference. With articles sent to you, you should always ask permission to cite; just like you would with an ordinary e-mail. Yeshiva Positions. For theses it’s common to include the kind of thesis after the title, such as PhD thesis or MA thesis . Where the name or place of the publisher is university unknown a very simple solution is used: leave the information blank. This is particularly an valdosta state university education major issue with internet sites. Including the URL is in university, this case much more helpful than trying to guess the name of the publisher. Course materials provided to you are treated very similar to the lecture handouts. Give the name of the author, the emergency residency year in of michigan, brackets, the west village housing university course code if there is one, the course title in italics (capitalized), the kind of material and university, its title in single speech marks, place of publication, and publisher.

For example: Peake, S. (2003) U216 Environment , Video 4 ‘Shanghai Boom’, Milton Keynes, The Open University. The Open University (2004) DD305 Personal Lives and Social Policy , CD-ROM 2 ‘Interviews and university in hong, Interviewing’, Milton Keynes, The Open University. The capitalization of titles may seem a bit confusing, but it follows a simple logic: it’s the main title that is capitalized. In the case of dr kujawski university a book, the valdosta education main title is that of the book. Dr Kujawski University Of Michigan. In the case of journal articles, on the other hand, the main title is thought to be that of the journal itself. It might be confusing that within the university positions journal, the title of an dr kujawski university article often is capitalized. Capitalization is not very hard to achieve. Put in capital letters are all nouns, proper names, the first word, verbs, and adjectives. Yeshiva University In Hong. This is in fact almost everything.

Not put in capital letters are words like and university of michigan, , in , or , or with . Unfortunately most word processors don’t capitalize properly when told to, and put every single word in capital letters, including the park jobs ands and withins that should not come with capital letters. Different publishers have different house styles, and you might come across a title with a word you would normally spell differently. This is common with British and American variants, but there are other words, too, such as post-modernity . Dr Kujawski Of Michigan. No matter how strongly you might disagree with the spelling, you should always use the loyola university original spelling in the references. It’s perfectly fine to change them in dr kujawski university, your essay itself, but not in the references. A good manual of style, such as the Oxford Style Manual (Ritter, 2003) will be able to give you further guidance. Many course providers have their own preferences or house styles, and it’s advisable to follow these conventions. Where there are no house styles, using a system such as the one outlined in this guide in a consistent manner will be well received. You’ll find full references to every work mentioned in this book at the end. It’s difficult to write about referencing without mentioning plagiarism. Plagiarism describes the act or result where you take the positions in hong words or ideas of university somebody else and present them as your own.

Plagiarism is considered serious academic misconduct and matthew, can be punished severely. Dr Kujawski University. Most importantly, however, your reputation is on the line. The origin of the word plagiarism gives you an idea what others will think of you when you plagiarize. The word goes back to the Latin plagiarius , a thief and kidnapper—in particular a child snatcher and somebody abducting slaves. The modern use in academia brands you a literary thief (OED, 2005). There are a number of reasons why plagiarism occurs. The worst case is deliberate plagiarism (for whatever reason). University Of Maryland College Park. Careless work may lead to plagiarism, but is not commonly considered as severe an offence as the deliberate case.

Careless work is often a sign of dr kujawski university of michigan students working too closely to university the original, and this can be easily remedied. Without changing your habit, simply by including references to where you got the ideas from, and putting speech marks where you quote, you technically are done. In practice, you still might rely too much on the original and not deliver as good an essay as you could. Deliberate plagiarism, often motivated by laziness, can’t be remedied directly. At the time, it may seem a reasonable risk to copy from the internet, but is it really worth it? Bear in mind that there is something in for you, too—that is something in addition to dr kujawski the grades. The more you write, the easier it gets. If you work too closely to the original, there is west housing towson a simple solution: don’t write the essay with the books in front of you.

By so doing, there is very little danger that you copy word by word. In a way, you force yourself to make the of michigan material your own: and that is a good thing—it makes a better argument, your essay will be more original, and of maryland university college park, not least, you’ll also get better grades. Rather than having the original works in front of you, try using your notes. As you still will need to put those references for the ideas you take from others, make a note whenever you do so. Dr Kujawski. I use brackets with three X inside, to remind myself that I need to put a proper reference.

Often I remember very well who said this, so I include, for example, (Granovetter XXX) inside the text. When checking the essay, it’s hard not to notice the triple X; and there is always the search facility in the word processor. By putting a place holder, I can get on with the job of writing without interrupting my thoughts. Equally important, I leave some traces indicating to myself that there is some more work to be done: finding the proper reference, for example. If you think plagiarism is university hard to detect by your marker, think again. There are a great number of signs that give plagiarized work away. Technology-wise, your markers are likely to have the same possibilities than you have if not more.

If you can copy and paste something you found on the internet, it’s equally easy for your marker to find it on a search engine, again. It would, of course, be possible, to change plagiarized work to the extent that the deed is no longer easy to dr kujawski of michigan spot. Usually, however, this is just as much work as writing the essay yourself. Just to give you an idea, the markers of your essay will not only have access to the same search engines than you have. There is software to scan essays for duplicates; and many institutes even have access to essay banks (sites on the internet where complete essays are sold). Pictures University Plane Crash Victims. The most successful tool, however, is probably the human brain with its incredible ability to remember. If you copy from a colleague, chances are that your marker has read this one, too. If you copy from a set reading, chances are that your marker has read this one, too. Knowing what is on the reading list helps spot essays that refer to other works a great deal, or don’t refer to some of the core reading.

Your marker can estimate how many readings you had time to read, or whether you’re likely to have read a great number of papers on the Belgian perspective of whatever issues is dr kujawski university of michigan set in the question. An even easier sign is having the same paragraph twice in the same essay, for example. There are more subtle signs, too, such as sudden changes in style or formatting. Many people are unaware of how idiosyncratic one’s writing style is. They are in fact so individual that writing styles can be used to yeshiva university positions in hong determine how many people wrote a document, such as the Christian Bible (Jakoblich, 2001). Writing style includes the dr kujawski tenses we use, the level of formality, our own choice of words, the kinds of metaphors we put, whether we use American or British English, choices over punctuation, the length of sentences, or the use of specialist terms. Typographic signs include font size, choices of where to break paragraphs, spaces in between lines, and things like proper m- and n-dashes (when copying from electronic articles). The presence or lack of references is often an easy sign: for example, where there are many references inside the text, but few at the end, or where the citation style changes within a single essay. A marker may get suspicious where there is medicine residency suddenly a section with many references, or suddenly none.

Sometimes, students even include hyperlinks in references when copying from electronic journals; and have them automatically underlined by the word processor. Even where you take care of these issues, a paragraph copied from the internet will very unlikely link well with the dr kujawski university rest of your essay. The style may be inappropriate, or just different. Essays from an essay bank may be internally consistent, but very rarely are they really relevant to the exact question you have been set. In summary, you can avoid plagiarism easily. This is done by writing freely without having the books right in front of you. Crash. Instead, work with your notes, and take care to put references where you use the ideas from others.

Don’t use the internet to copy from, no matter how tempting it is. It will hardly ever be worth it. There is an dr kujawski university important difference between citations and quotations. Unfortunately, confusion is emergency commonplace; and the terms are frequently used incorrectly. Knowing your citations from your quotations is useful when writing essays. It’s essential, in fact, if you want to university reference properly. Citations are about crash ideas you take from others. Quotations are about the dr kujawski of michigan exact words used by others. This is really the whole distinction. So, when using your own words, you cite; when you use the major words of someone else, you quote. “Why can’t a man be more like a woman?” (Blankenhorn, 1995, p.117) is a quotation, because I use the exact same words Blankenhorn did. However, when stating that families in university, the US are increasingly defined by the absence of a father (Blankenhorn, 1995), I only use the idea, not the exact words.

When putting a reference, the difference between a citation and a quotation is that for a quotation we always put a page number. This is done to enable the reader to check the words in the original context. In the list of references at the end of the text, there is no difference. Short quotations are included in the text, and enclosed by speech marks. Longer quotations are set apart from the main text by indenting the quotations, and usually putting in a slightly smaller font. Longer means about 3 to stanford emergency medicine 4 lines or more. For example: It is true that many voters may be voting for reasons wholly unconnected with social inequalities in any of the three dimensions. They may attach greater importance to some specific issue such as foreign affairs, or they may vote out of personal reasons or habits with which egalitarianism has nothing to do. (Runciman, 1966, p.136) When quoting someone else, you should take great care to copy the words exactly. Sometimes, you might want to dr kujawski of michigan change a quote slightly in order to make it fit your essay.

If these changes are substantial, you should use your own words and cite the housing university work instead. If the changes are small, use square brackets to dr kujawski university of michigan indicate that you have changed the text. For example, you might quote Rawls (1999, p.87) that intelligent people don’t “[deserve their] greater natural capacity”. I have included the words that I changed in square brackets, leaving the rest the same. This indicates to my readers that the matthew words in square brackets are not the dr kujawski exact same as Rawls used. For reference, the original reads: “No one deserves his greater natural capacity” (p.87). I made the changes, because I wrote about intelligent people, and Rawls was talking in more general terms. Whilst quotations can lighten up an essay, you should not rely on them too much.

Your own writing is much more important, and often text you quote was written for a different purpose. The consequence is that the quotations may be relevant in content (what is being said), but in terms of style don’t fit well with what you wrote. If you rely too much on village towson quotations, you run the risk that your readers will think that you maybe don’t really know what you’re writing about: that you have not understood the material well enough. When writing an essay, particularly when writing an extended essay, it’s easiest to put the references whilst you write. This is the case, because you still know where you got the idea from.

I keep a place holder to remind myself that a reference is needed if I can’t remember the author right away. Often, I will know at least some of it, and write this down. By putting a place holder rather than chasing the reference right away, I can stay focused on the writing. However, I also indicate that the essay is not completed. Place holders like (Baudrillard, XXX) or (XXX last week’s reading) will help me find the full references once I completed the essay or section. References are needed whenever you write an academic piece of writing. Even where you can get away without referencing, by including references your essay will be taken more serious. It’s a good habit to university of michigan put references all the time, so when you really need to—such as in your thesis—you’ll not struggle, or spend days trying to find out how to yeshiva in hong reference a chapter in a book.

There are a number of dr kujawski university software packages such as Endnote , Refworks , Scholar’s Aid Lite , or Bibus that help you putting references. These computer applications interact with your word processor, and automate much of the siniawski loyola marymount university referencing process. They manage citations, and usually let you search libraries and dr kujawski university, journal databases. Useful and flexible as they are, such software packages need some time to get used to. It’s thus a good idea to valdosta familiarize yourself with their working before the deadline is menacing. University. For example, make sure you know how to put page numbers for quotations. Even if you don’t use a dedicated computer program to manage your references, it might be useful to collect references in a separate file. So, after completing your essay, copy all the references to a separate file.

The next time you cite the same paper, it’ll be a simple case of copying and pasting, without the work of of maryland university jobs formatting the reference. Keeping the full references with your notes can safe a great deal of time, too.